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Turkmenistan

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"Turkomania" redirects here. For other uses, see Turkomania (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Turkestan, Turkey, or Turkmeneli.

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Turkmenistan

Türkmenistan  (Turkmen)
Motto: 
Türkmenistan Bitaraplygyň watanydyr
"Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality"[1][2]
Anthem: 
Garaşsyz Bitarap Türkmenistanyň Döwlet Gimni
"National Anthem of Independent Neutral Turkmenistan"
File:National anthem of Turkmenistan, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga
Location of Turkmenistan (red)
Location of Turkmenistan (red)
Capital
and largest city
Ashgabat
37°58′N 58°20′E / 37.967°N 58.333°E / 37.967; 58.333
Fatal error: The format of the coordinate could not be determined. Parsing failed.


Official languagesTurkmen[3]
Ethnic groups
(2012)[4]
  • 85.6% Turkmens
  • 5.8% Uzbeks
  • 5.1% Russians
  • 0.4% Kazakhs
  • 3.1% Others
Religion
(2020)[5]
  • 93% Islam
  • 6.4% Christianity
  • 0.6% Other
Demonym(s)Turkmenistani[6]
Turkmen[7]
Turkmenian
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under a totalitarian hereditary dictatorship[8][9]
Page Module:Infobox/styles.css has no content.
• President
Serdar Berdimuhamedow
• Vice President
Raşit Meredow
• Chairman of the People's Council
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
• Chairperson of the Assembly
Dünýägözel Gulmanowa
LegislatureAssembly
Independence from the Soviet Union
Page Module:Infobox/styles.css has no content.
• Conquest
1879
• Soviet rule
13 May 1925
• Declared state sovereignty
22 August 1990
• From the Soviet Union
27 October 1991
• Recognized
26 December 1991
• Current constitution
18 May 1992
Area
• Total
491,210 km2 (189,660 sq mi)[10] (52nd)
• Water
24,069 km2 (9,293 sq mi)
• Water (%)
4.9
Population
• Census
7,057,841 [11]
• Density
14.4/km2 (37.3/sq mi) (221st)
GDP (PPP)2022 estimate
• Total
$117.7 billion [12] (93nd)
• Per capita
$18,875[12] (80th)
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
$82.65 billion[12]
• Per capita
$13,076[12]
Gini (1998)40.8
medium
HDI (2021)Increase 0.745[13]
high · 91st
CurrencyManat (TMT)
Time zoneUTC+05 (TMT)
Driving sideright
Calling code+993
ISO 3166 codeTM
Internet TLD.tm

Turkmenistan (English pronunciation: or English pronunciation: ; Template:Lang-tk, Template:IPA-tk[14]) is a landlocked country in Central Asia bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.[15] Ashgabat is the capital and largest city. It is one of the six independent Turkic states. The population is about seven million (according to the 17 December 2022 Census) and is thus the lowest of the Central Asian republics, and Turkmenistan is one of the most sparsely populated nations in Asia.[6][16][7]

Turkmenistan has long served as a thoroughfare for several empires and cultures.[17] Merv is one of the oldest oasis-cities in Central Asia,[18] and was once among the biggest cities in the world.[19] It was also one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by the Russian Empire in 1881, Turkmenistan figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Central Asia. In 1925, Turkmenistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR); it became independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.[6]

The country is widely criticized for its poor human rights,[20][21] its treatment of minorities, and its lack of press and religious freedoms. Since the independence declared from the Soviet Union in 1991, Turkmenistan has been ruled by repressive totalitarian regimes: that of President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (also known as Türkmenbaşy/Türkmenbaşı or "Head of the Turkmens") until his death in 2006; Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who became president in 2007 after winning a non-democratic election (he had been vice-president and then acting president previously); and his son Serdar, who won a subsequent 2022 presidential election described by international observers as neither free nor fair, and now shares power with his father.[22][23][9]

Turkmenistan possesses the world's fifth largest reserves of natural gas.[24] Most of the country is covered by the Karakum Desert. From 1993 to 2019, citizens received government-provided electricity, water and natural gas free of charge.[25] Turkmenistan is an observer state in the Organisation of Turkic States, the Türksoy community and a member of the United Nations.[26]

Etymology[]

The name of Turkmenistan (Template:Lang-tk) can be divided into two components: the ethnonym Türkmen and the Persian suffix -stan meaning "place of" or "country". The name "Turkmen" comes from Turk, plus the Sogdian suffix -men, meaning "almost Turk", in reference to their status outside the Turkic dynastic mythological system.[27] However, some scholars argue the suffix is an intensifier, changing the meaning of Türkmen to "pure Turks" or "the Turkish Turks."[28]

Muslim chroniclers like Ibn Kathir suggested that the etymology of Turkmenistan came from the words Türk and Iman (Arabic: إيمان‎, "faith, belief") in reference to a massive conversion to Islam of two hundred thousand households in the year 971.[29]

Turkmenistan declared its independence from the Soviet Union after the independence referendum in 1991. As a result, the constitutional law was adopted on 27 October of that year and Article 1 established the new name of the state: Turkmenistan (Türkmenistan / Түркменистан).[30]

A common name for the Turkmen SSR was Turkmenia (Template:Lang-ru, romanization: Turkmeniya), used in some reports of the country's independence.[31]

History[]

Main article: History of Turkmenistan

Historically inhabited by the Indo-Iranians, the written history of Turkmenistan begins with its annexation by the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Iran. After centuries of turmoil, over a thousand years later, in the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oghuz tribes moved from Mongolia into present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghuz formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen population.[32] In the 10th century, the name "Turkmen" was first applied to Oghuz groups that accepted Islam and began to occupy present-day Turkmenistan.[32] There they were under the dominion of the Seljuk Empire, which was composed of Oghuz groups living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan.[32] Oghuz groups in the service of the empire played an important role in the spreading of Turkic culture when they migrated westward into present-day Azerbaijan and eastern Turkey.[32]

File:Turban helmet Met 04.3.211.jpg

Turkmen helmet (15th century)

In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk Empire.[32] In the next century, the Mongols took over the more northern lands where the Turkmens had settled, scattering the Turkmens southward and contributing to the formation of new tribal groups.[32] The sixteenth and eighteenth centuries saw a series of splits and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, who remained staunchly independent and inspired fear in their neighbors.[32] By the 16th century, most of those tribes were under the nominal control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates, Khiva and Bukhoro.[32] Turkmen soldiers were an important element of the Uzbek militaries of this period.[32] In the 19th century, raids and rebellions by the Yomud Turkmen group resulted in that group's dispersal by the Uzbek rulers.[32] In 1855 the Turkmen tribe of Teke led by Gowshut-Khan defeated the invading army of the Khan of Khiva Muhammad Amin Khan[33] and in 1861 the invading Persian army of Nasreddin-Shah.[34]

In the second half of the 19th century, northern Turkmens were the main military and political power in the Khanate of Khiva.[35][36] According to Paul R. Spickard, "Prior to the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known and feared for their involvement in the Central Asian slave trade."[37][38]

File:1. Чарджуй (бухарские владения). У городских ворот.jpg

City of Çärjew in Russian Turkestan, 1890

Russian forces began occupying Turkmen territory late in the 19th century.[32] From their Caspian Sea base at Krasnovodsk (now Türkmenbaşy), the Russians eventually overcame the Uzbek khanates.[32] In 1879, the Russian forces were defeated by the Teke Turkmens during the first attempt to conquer the Ahal area of Turkmenistan.[39] However, in 1881, the last significant resistance in Turkmen territory was crushed at the Battle of Geok Tepe, and shortly thereafter Turkmenistan was annexed, together with adjoining Uzbek territory, into the Russian Empire.[32] In 1916, the Russian Empire's participation in World War I resonated in Turkmenistan, as an anticonscription revolt swept most of Russian Central Asia.[32] Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s Turkmen forces joined Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks in the so-called Basmachi Rebellion against the rule of the newly formed Soviet Union.[32] In 1921 the tsarist province of Transcaspia (Template:Lang-ru, 'Transcaspian Oblast') was renamed Turkmen Oblast (Template:Lang-ru), and in 1924, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic was formed from it.[32][40] By the late 1930s, Soviet reorganization of agriculture had destroyed what remained of the nomadic lifestyle in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled political life.[32] The Ashgabat earthquake of 1948 killed over 110,000 people,[41] amounting to two-thirds of the city's population.

File:Turkmen man with camel.jpg

A Turkmen man of Central Asia in traditional clothes. Photo by Prokudin-Gorsky between 1905 and 1915.

During the next half-century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and remained outside the course of major world events.[32] Even the major liberalization movement that shook Russia in the late 1980s had little impact.[32] However, in 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Turkmenistan declared sovereignty as a nationalist response to perceived exploitation by Moscow.[32] Although Turkmenistan was ill-prepared for independence and then-communist leader Saparmurat Niyazov preferred to preserve the Soviet Union, in October 1991, the fragmentation of that entity forced him to call a national referendum that approved independence.[32] On 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's chief of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a pervasive cult of personality.[32] A 1994 referendum and legislation in 1999 abolished further requirements for the president to stand for re-election (although in 1992 he completely dominated the only presidential election in which he ran, as he was the only candidate and no one else was allowed to run for the office), making him effectively president for life.[32] During his tenure, Niyazov conducted frequent purges of public officials and abolished organizations deemed threatening.[32] Throughout the post-Soviet era, Turkmenistan has taken a neutral position on almost all international issues.[32] Niyazov eschewed membership in regional organizations such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and in the late 1990s he maintained relations with the Taliban and its chief opponent in Afghanistan, the Northern Alliance.[32] He offered limited support to the military campaign against the Taliban following the 11 September 2001 attacks.[32] In 2002 an alleged assassination attempt against Niyazov led to a new wave of security restrictions, dismissals of government officials, and restrictions placed on the media.[32] Niyazov accused exiled former foreign minister Boris Shikhmuradov of having planned the attack.[32]

Between 2002 and 2004, serious tension arose between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan because of bilateral disputes and Niyazov's implication that Uzbekistan had a role in the 2002 assassination attempt.[32] In 2004, a series of bilateral treaties restored friendly relations.[32] In the parliamentary elections of December 2004 and January 2005, only Niyazov's party was represented, and no international monitors participated.[32] In 2005, Niyazov exercised his dictatorial power by closing all hospitals outside Ashgabat and all rural libraries.[32] The year 2006 saw intensification of the trends of arbitrary policy changes, shuffling of top officials, diminishing economic output outside the oil and gas sector, and isolation from regional and world organizations.[32] China was among a very few nations to whom Turkmenistan made significant overtures.[32] The sudden death of Niyazov at the end of 2006 left a complete vacuum of power, as his cult of personality, comparable to the one of eternal president Kim Il Sung of North Korea, had precluded the naming of a successor.[32] Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, who was named interim head of government, won a non-democratic special presidential election held in early February 2007.[32] His appointment as interim president and subsequent run for president violated the constitution.[42] Berdimuhamedow won two additional non-democratic elections, with approximately 97% of the vote in both 2012[43] and 2017.[44] His son Serdar Berdimuhamedow won a non-democratic snap presidential election in 2022, establishing a political dynasty in Turkmenistan.[45] On 19 March 2022, Serdar Berdimuhamedov was sworn in as Turkmenistan's new president to succeed his father.[46]

See also[]

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  • Outline of Turkmenistan
  • Index of Turkmenistan-related articles

References[]

  1. ↑ ""Turkmenistan is the motherland of Neutrality" is the motto of 2020 | Chronicles of Turkmenistan". En.hronikatm.com. 28 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  2. ↑ "Turkmen parliament places Year 2020 under national motto "Turkmenistan – Homeland of Neutrality" – tpetroleum". Turkmenpetroleum.com. 29 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  3. ↑ "Turkmenistan's Constitution of 2008" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
  4. ↑ "The results of census in Turkmenistan | Chronicles of Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 6 October 2016.
  5. ↑ "Turkmenistan". 3 August 2022. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 10 August 2022.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named World Factbook
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Dual Citizenship". Ashgabat: U.S. Embassy in Turkmenistan. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
  8. ↑ *Gore, Hayden (2007). "Totalitarianism: The Case of Turkmenistan" (PDF). Human Rights & Human Welfare. Denver: Josef Korbel School of International Studies (Human Rights in Russia and the Former Soviet Republics): 107–116. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Turkmenistan's president expands his father's power". Associated Press. Ashgabat. 22 January 2023. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
  10. ↑ Государственный комитет Туркменистана по статистике : Информация о Туркменистане: О Туркменистане Archived 7 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine : Туркменистан — одна из пяти стран Центральной Азии, вторая среди них по площади (491,21 тысяч км2), расположен в юго-западной части региона в зоне пустынь, севернее хребта Копетдаг Туркмено-Хорасанской горной системы, между Каспийским морем на западе и рекой Амударья на востоке.
  11. ↑ "«Ilat ýazuwy — 2022»: Türkmenistanyň ilaty 7 million 57 müň 841 adama deň boldy | Jemgyýet". August 2023.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  13. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  14. ↑ Clark, Larry (1998). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 50.
  15. ↑ Afanasiev (58b00667a5209), Vladimir (21 January 2021). "Deep-water friendship: Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan bury Caspian Sea hatchet". Upstream Online | Latest oil and gas news. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  16. ↑ "Turkmenian". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  17. ↑ "Turkmenistan", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 19 October 2021, archived from the original on 10 January 2021, retrieved 25 October 2021
  18. ↑ "State Historical and Cultural Park "Ancient Merv"". UNESCO-WHC. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
  19. ↑ Tharoor, Kanishk (2016). "Lost cities #5: how the magnificent city of Merv was razed – and never recovered". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2020. Once the world's biggest city, the Silk Road metropolis of Merv in modern Turkmenistan destroyed by Genghis Khan's son and the Mongols in AD1221 with an estimated 700,000 deaths.
  20. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named flee
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Kerry
  22. ↑ "As Expected, Son Of Turkmen Leader Easily Wins Election In Familial Transfer Of Power". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
  23. ↑ "Turkmenistan: Autocrat president's son claims landslide win". Deutsche Welle. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
  24. ↑ "BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2019" (PDF). p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2019.
  25. ↑ "Turkmen ruler ends free power, gas, water – World News". Hürriyet Daily News. 10 October 2017. Archived from the original on 15 July 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2018.
  26. ↑ AA, DAILY SABAH WITH (17 November 2021). "'Turkmenistan's new status in Turkic States significant development'". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
  27. ↑ Zuev, Yury (2002). Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology. Almatý: Daik-Press. p. 157.
  28. ↑ "About this Collection | Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  29. ↑ "البداية والنهاية/الجزء الحادي عشر - ويكي مصدر". ar.wikisource.org (in Arabic). Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  30. ↑ "Constitutional Law of Turkmenistan on independence and the fundamentals of the state organisation of Turkmenistan" Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine; Ведомости Меджлиса Туркменистана", № 15, page 152 – 27 October 1991. Retrieved from the Database of Legislation of Turkmenistan, OSCE Centre in Ashgabat.
  31. ↑ Reuters (28 October 1991). "Independence of Turkmenia Declared After a Referendum". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  32. ↑ 32.00 32.01 32.02 32.03 32.04 32.05 32.06 32.07 32.08 32.09 32.10 32.11 32.12 32.13 32.14 32.15 32.16 32.17 32.18 32.19 32.20 32.21 32.22 32.23 32.24 32.25 32.26 32.27 32.28 32.29 32.30 32.31 32.32 32.33 32.34 32.35 32.36 "Country Profile: Turkmenistan" (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division. February 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2005. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
  33. ↑ Аннанепесов (Annanepesov), М. (M.) (2000). Gundogdyyev, Ovez (ed.). "Серахское сражение 1855 года (Историко-культурное наследие Туркменистана)" [Serakhs Battle of 1855 (Historical and Cultural Heritage of Turkmenistan)] (in Russian). Istanbul: UNDP. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  34. ↑ Казем-Заде (Kazem-Zade), Фируз (Firuz) (2017). Борьба за влияние в Персии. Дипломатическое противостояние России и Англии [Struggle for Influence in Persia. Diplomatic Confrontation between Russia and England] (in Russian). Центрполиграф (Centrpoligraph). ISBN 978-5457028937. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2020.
  35. ↑ MacGahan, Januarius (1874). "Campaigning on the Oxus, and the fall of Khiva". New York: Harper & Brothers. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
  36. ↑ Глуховской (Glukhovskoy), А. (1873). "О положении дел в Аму Дарьинском бассейне" [On the State of Affairs in the Amu Darya Basin] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
  37. ↑ Paul R. Spickard (2005). Race and Nation: Ethnic Systems in the Modern World. Routledge. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-415-95003-9.
  38. ↑ Scott Cameron Levi (January 2002). The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and Its Trade: 1550–1900. BRILL. p. 68. ISBN 978-90-04-12320-5.
  39. ↑ Аннанепесов (Annanepesov), М. (M.) (2000). "Ахалтекинские экспедиции (Историко-культурное наследие Туркменистана)" [Akhal-Teke Expeditions (Historical and Cultural Heritage of Turkmenistan)] (in Russian). UNDP. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2020.
  40. ↑ Muradov, Ruslan (13 May 2021). "История Ашхабада: время больших перемен" (in Russian). «Туркменистан: золотой век». Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
  41. ↑ "Comments for the significant earthquake". Significant Earthquake Database. National Geophysical Data Center. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  42. ↑ Horák, Slavomír; Šír, Jan (March 2009). Dismantling Totalitarianism? Turkmenistan under Berdimuhamedow (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Central Asia-Caucasus Institute & Silk Road Studies Program. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-91 85937-17-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
  43. ↑ "Turkmenistan president wins election with 96.9% of vote". The Guardian. London. 13 February 2012. Archived from the original on 19 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
  44. ↑ Putz, Catherine (14 February 2017). "Turkmenistan, Apparently, Had an Election". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.
  45. ↑ "Turkmenistan leader's son wins presidential election". AP NEWS. Associated Press. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
  46. ↑ "Serdar Berdimuhamedov sworn in as Turkmenistan's new president". www.aa.com.tr. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2022.

Further reading[]

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia

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  • Abazov, Rafis (2005). Historical Dictionary of Turkmenistan. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-5362-1.
  • Brummel, Paul (2006). Bradt Travel Guide: Turkmenistan. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-144-9.
  • Clammer, Paul; Kohn, Michael; Mayhew, Bradley (2014). Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74179-953-8.
  • Hopkirk, Peter (1992). The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia. Kodansha International. ISBN 978-1-56836-022-5.
  • Kaplan, Robert (2001). Eastward to Tartary: Travels in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the Caucasus. Vintage. ISBN 978-0-3757-0576-2.
  • Kropf, John (2006). Unknown Sands: Journeys Around the World's Most Isolated Country. Dusty Spark Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9763-5651-6.
  • Lobanov-Rostovsky, Andrei (1965). Russia and Asia. Ann Arbor, Michigan: George Wahr Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-1259-8932-6.
  • Nahaylo, Bohdan; Swoboda, Victor (1990). Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0029224012.
  • Rashid, Ahmed (2017). The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism?.
  • Rasizade, Alec (October 2003). "Turkmenbashi and his Turkmenistan". Contemporary Review. Oxford. 283 (1653): 197–206. Archived from the original on 6 January 2007.
  • Smith, Graham, ed. (1995). The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed.).

External links[]

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Coordinates: 39°N 60°E / 39°N 60°E / 39; 60

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