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Tajikistan

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Republic of Tajikistan

  • Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон (Tajik)
    Jumhurii Tojikiston
  • Республика Таджикистан (Russian)
    Respublika Tadzhikistan
Motto: Истиқлол, Озодӣ, Ватан (Tajik)
Istiqlol, Ozodī, Vatan
"Independence, Freedom, Homeland"
Anthem: Суруди Миллӣ (Tajik)
Surudi Milli
"National Anthem"
Template:Centre
Location of Tajikistan (green)
Location of Tajikistan (green)
Capital
and largest city
Dushanbe
38°33′N 68°48′E / 38.550°N 68.800°E / 38.550; 68.800
Fatal error: The format of the coordinate could not be determined. Parsing failed.


Official languages
  • Tajiki (national)
    Russian (interethnic)[1]
Spoken languages
  • Tajik
  • Russian[lower-alpha 1]
  • Uzbek
  • Kyrgyz
  • Turkmen
  • Shughni
  • Rushani
  • Yaghnobi
  • Bartangi
  • Sanglechi-Ishkashimi
  • Central Asian Arabic
  • Parya
  • Bukhori
  • Tatar
  • Ukrainian
  • others
Ethnic groups
(2010[2])
  • 84.3% Tajiks
  • 12.2% Uzbeks
  • 0.8% Kyrgyz
  • 0.4% Pamiris
  • 0.5% East Slavs[lower-alpha 2]
  • 2.2% Others
Religion
(2020)[3][4]
Page Template:Tree list/styles.css has no content.
  • 96.4% Islam
    • 96% Hanafi Sunni
    • 0.4% Ismaili Shia
  • 1.8% Christianity
  • 1.5% Irreligion
  • 0.3% Others
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitary presidential republic under an authoritarian dictatorship[7]
Page Module:Infobox/styles.css has no content.
• President
Emomali Rahmon
• Prime Minister
Kokhir Rasulzoda
LegislatureSupreme Assembly
• Upper house
National Assembly
• Lower house
Assembly of Representatives
Formation
Page Module:Infobox/styles.css has no content.
• Samanid Empire
819
• Annexed by the Russian Empire
18 June 1868
• Independent Turkestan state
27 November 1917
• Turkestan Soviet Autonomy
30 April 1918
• Tajik Soviet Autonomy
October 1924
• Tajik Soviet Republic
5 December 1929
• Sovereignty declared
24 August 1990
31 August 1991
• Independence declared from USSR
9 September 1991
• Independence recognized
26 September 1991
• Current constitution
6 November 1994
Area
• Total
142,326 km2 (54,952 sq mi) (94th)
• Water
2,575 km2 (994 sq mi)
• Water (%)
1.8
Population
• 2022 estimate
9,750,065[8][9] (94th)
• Density
48.6/km2 (125.9/sq mi) (155th)
GDP (PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $47.2 billion[10]
• Per capita
Increase $4,137[10]
GDP (nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase $12.8 billion[10]
• Per capita
Increase $1,277[10]
Gini (2015)34[11]
medium
HDI (2021)Increase 0.685[12]
medium · 122th
CurrencySomoni (TJS)
Time zoneUTC+5 (TJT)
Date formatdd.mm.yyyy
Driving sideright
Calling code+992
ISO 3166 codeTJ
Internet TLD.tj
  1. Russian has the status of an official language through its use as the official interethnic language as cited in the Constitution of Tajikistan.[13]

Tajikistan,[lower-alpha 3][lower-alpha 4] officially the Republic of Tajikistan,[lower-alpha 5] is a landlocked country in Central Asia. It has an area of 142,326 km2 (54,952 sq mi) and an estimated population of 9,750,065 people.[8] Dushanbe is the country's capital and largest city. It is bordered by Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, China to the east and is separated narrowly from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor. Tajiks form the ethnic majority in the country and the historical Tajik homeland lies in present-day Tajikistan as well as parts of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan.

The territory that now constitutes Tajikistan was previously home to several ancient cultures, including the city of Sarazm[14] of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age and was later home to kingdoms ruled by people of different faiths and cultures, including the Oxus civilization, Andronovo culture, Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Islam. The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Achaemenid Empire, Sasanian Empire, Hephthalite Empire, Samanid Empire, and Mongol Empire. After being ruled by the Timurid Empire and Khanate of Bukhara, the Timurid Renaissance flourished. The region was later conquered by the Russian Empire and subsequently by the Soviet Union. Within the Soviet Union, the country's modern borders were drawn when it was part of Uzbekistan as an autonomous republic before becoming a full-fledged Soviet republic in 1929.[15]

On 9 September 1991, Tajikistan declared itself an independent sovereign nation as the Soviet Union was disintegrating. A civil war was fought almost immediately after independence, lasting from May 1992 to June 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. The country has been led by President Emomali Rahmon since 1994, who rules an authoritarian regime. There is extensive corruption and widespread violations of human rights, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, worsening political repression, and a lack of religious freedom and other civil liberties.[16][17]

Tajikistan is a presidential republic consisting of four provinces. Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Tajik ethnic group,[18] who speak the Tajik language — the first official language — making it one of the three Persian-speaking countries alongside Afghanistan and Iran. Russian is used as the official inter-ethnic language. While the state is constitutionally secular, Islam is nominally adhered to by 96% of the population. In the Gorno-Badakhshan oblast, despite its sparse population, there is large linguistic diversity where Rushani, Shughni, Ishkashimi, Wakhi and Tajik are some of the languages spoken. Mountains cover more than 90% of the country. It is a developing country with a transitional economy that is highly dependent on remittances, aluminium and cotton production. Tajikistan is a member of the United Nations, CIS, OSCE, OIC, ECO, SCO, and CSTO as well as a NATO PfP partner.

Etymology[]

Main article: Tajik people

The term "Tajik" itself ultimately derives from the Middle Persian "Tāzīk", the Turkic rendition of the Arabic ethnonym Ṭayyi’, denoting a large Qahtanite Arab tribe who emigrated to Transoxiana region of Central Asia in the 7th century AD.[19] Tajikistan appeared as Tadjikistan or Tadzhikistan in English prior to 1991. This is due to a transliteration from the Template:Lang-ru. In Russian, there is no single letter "j" to represent the phoneme Template:Ipa, and therefore Template:Script, or dzh, is used. Tadzhikistan is the most common alternate spelling and is widely used in English literature derived from Russian sources.[20] "Tadjikistan" is the spelling in French and can occasionally be found in English language texts. The way of writing Tajikistan in the Perso-Arabic script is: Template:Nastaliq.

Even though the Library of Congress's 1997 Country Study of Tajikistan found it difficult to definitively state the origins of the word "Tajik" because the term is "embroiled in twentieth-century political disputes about whether Turkic or Iranian peoples were the original inhabitants of Central Asia,"[21] most scholars concluded that contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of the ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples.[22][23] According to Richard Nelson Frye, a leading historian of Iranian and Central Asian history, the Persian emigration to Central Asia may be considered the beginning of the modern Tajik nation, and ethnic Persians, along with some elements of the Eastern Iranian Bactrians and Sogdians, as the main ancestors of the modern Tajiks.[24] In later works, Frye expands on the complexity of the historical origins of the Tajiks. In a 1996 publication, Frye explains that many "factors must be taken into account in explaining the evolution of the peoples whose remnants are the Tajiks in Central Asia" and that "the peoples of Central Asia, whether Iranian or Turkic speaking, have one culture, one religion, one set of social values and traditions with only language separating them."[25]

Regarding Tajiks, the Encyclopædia Britannica states:Page Template:Blockquote/styles.css has no content.

The Tajiks are the direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the first millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Farsi, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan.[26]

History[]

Main article: History of Tajikistan

Early history[]

File:Ambassador from Kumedh (胡密丹), visiting the court of the Tang Dynasty. The Gathering of Kings (王会图) circa 650 CE.jpg

Ambassador to the Tang dynasty, coming from Kumedh (胡密丹), Tajikistan. Wanghuitu (王会图) circa 650 CE.[27][28]

Cultures in the region have been dated back to at least the fourth millennium BC, including the Bronze Age Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, the Andronovo cultures and the pro-urban site of Sarazm, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[29]

The earliest recorded history of the region dates back to about 500 BC when much, if not all, of modern Tajikistan, was part of the Achaemenid Empire.[21] Some authors have also suggested that in the seventh and sixth centuries BC, parts of modern Tajikistan, including territories in the Zeravshan valley, formed part of the ancient Hindu Kambojas tribe[30][31] before it became part of the Achaemenid Empire.[32] After the region's conquest by Alexander the Great it became part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, a successor state of Alexander's empire. Northern Tajikistan (the cities of Khujand and Panjakent) was part of Sogdia, a collection of city-states which was overrun by Scythians and Yuezhi nomadic tribes around 150 BC. The Silk Road passed through the region and following the expedition of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian during the reign of Wudi (141BC–87 BC) commercial relations between Han Empire and Sogdiana flourished.[33][34] Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade and also worked in other capacities, as farmers, carpetweavers, glassmakers, and woodcarvers.[35]

The Kushan Empire, a collection of Yuezhi tribes, took control of the region in the first century AD and ruled until the fourth century AD during which time Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Manichaeism were all practised in the region.[36] Later the Hephthalite Empire, a collection of nomadic tribes, moved into the region and Arabs brought Islam in the early eighth century.[36] Central Asia continued in its role as a commercial crossroads, linking China, the steppes to the north, and the Islamic heartland.[citation needed]

File:MansurISamanidPaintingHistoryofIran.jpg

The Samanid ruler Mansur I (961–976)

File:Thomas Edward Gordon Lake Victoria, Great Pamir, May 2nd, 1874.png

19th-century painting of lake Zorkul and a local Tajik inhabitant

It was briefly under the control of the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty from 650 to 680 CE and then under the control of the Umayyads in 710 CE.

Samanid Empire[]

See also: Samanid Empire

The Samanid Empire, 819 to 999, restored Persian control of the region and enlarged the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara (both cities are today part of Uzbekistan) which became the cultural centers of Iran and the region was known as Khorasan. The empire was centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing modern-day Afghanistan, large parts of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, parts of Kazakhstan, and Pakistan. Four brothers Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Kara-Khanid Khanate conquered Transoxania (which corresponds approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan) and ruled between 999 and 1211.[37][38] Their arrival in Transoxania signalled a definitive shift from Iranian to Turkic predominance in Central Asia,[39] but gradually the Kara-khanids became assimilated into the Perso-Arab Muslim culture of the region.[40]

In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire swept through Central Asia, invaded Khwarezmian Empire and sacked the cities, looting and massacring people everywhere. Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane founded the Timurid Empire in and around modern-day Tajikistan and Central Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid dynasty.[41]

Bukharan rule[]

See also: Khanate of Bukhara

Modern Tajikistan fell under the rule of the Khanate of Bukhara during the 16th century and with the empire's collapse in the 18th century it came under the rule of both the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. The Emirate of Bukhara remained intact until the 20th century but during the 19th century, for the second time in world history, a European power (the Russian Empire) began to conquer parts of the region.[42]

Imperial Russia[]

See also: The Great Game, Russian conquest of Turkestan, and Russian Turkestan

Russian Imperialism led to the Russian Empire's conquest of Central Asia during the late 19th century's Imperial Era. Between 1864 and 1885, Russia gradually took control of the entire territory of Russian Turkestan, the Tajikistan portion of which had been controlled by the Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Kokand. Russia was interested in gaining access to a supply of cotton and in the 1870s attempted to switch cultivation in the region from grain to cotton (a strategy later copied and expanded by the Soviets).[43] By 1885 Tajikistan's territory was either ruled by the Russian Empire or its vassal state, the Emirate of Bukhara, nevertheless Tajiks felt little Russian influence.

During the late 19th century, the Jadidists established themselves as an Islamic social movement throughout the region. Although the Jadidists were pro-modernization and not necessarily anti-Russian, the Russians viewed the movement as a threat because the Russian Empire was predominantly Christian.[44] Russian troops were required to restore order during uprisings against the Khanate of Kokand between 1910 and 1913. Further violence occurred in July 1916 when demonstrators attacked Russian soldiers in Khujand over the threat of forced conscription during World War I. Despite Russian troops quickly bringing Khujand back under control, clashes continued throughout the year in various locations in Tajikistan. [45]

Soviet period[]

Main articles: Basmachi movement and Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic
File:Negotiations with basmachs Fergana, 1921.jpg

Soviet negotiations with basmachi, 1921

After the Russian Revolution of 1917 guerrillas throughout Central Asia, known as basmachi, waged a war against Bolshevik armies in an attempt to maintain independence.[46] The Bolsheviks prevailed after a four-year war, in which mosques and villages were burned down and the population heavily suppressed. Soviet authorities started a campaign of secularisation. Practising Islam, Judaism, and Christianity was discouraged and repressed, and many mosques, churches, and synagogues were closed.[47] As a consequence of the conflict and Soviet agriculture policies, Central Asia, Tajikistan included, suffered a famine that claimed many lives.[48]

In 1924, the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was created as a part of Uzbekistan,[46] but in 1929 the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR) was made a separate constituent republic;[46] however, the predominantly ethnic Tajik cities of Samarkand and Bukhara remained in the Uzbek SSR. Between 1927 and 1934, collectivisation of agriculture and a rapid expansion of cotton production took place, especially in the southern region.[49] Soviet collectivisation policy brought violence against peasants and forced resettlement occurred throughout Tajikistan. Consequently, some peasants fought collectivization and revived the Basmachi movement. Some small scale industrial development also occurred during this time along with the expansion of irrigation infrastructure.[49]

File:Hammond Slides Central Asia Unlabeled 15.jpg

Soviet Tajikistan in 1964

Two rounds of Stalin's purges (1927–1934 and 1937–1938) resulted in the expulsion of nearly 10,000 people, from all levels of the Communist Party of Tajikistan.[50] Ethnic Russians were sent in to replace those expelled and subsequently Russians dominated party positions at all levels, including the top position of first secretary.[50] Between 1926 and 1959 the proportion of Russians among Tajikistan's population grew from less than 1% to 13%.[51] Bobojon Ghafurov, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Tajikistan from 1946 to 1956, was the only Tajik politician of significance outside of the country during the Soviet Era.[52] He was followed in office by Tursun Uljabayev (1956–61), Jabbor Rasulov (1961–1982), and Rahmon Nabiyev (1982–1985, 1991–1992).

Tajiks began to be conscripted into the Soviet Army in 1939 and during World War II around 260,000 Tajik citizens fought against Germany, Finland and Japan. Between 60,000 (4%)[53] and 120,000 (8%)[54] of Tajikistan's 1,530,000 citizens were killed during World War II.[55] Following the war and Stalin's reign, attempts were made to further expand the agriculture and industry of Tajikistan.[52] During 1957–58 Nikita Khrushchev's Virgin Lands Campaign focused attention on Tajikistan, where living conditions, education and industry lagged behind the other Soviet Republics.[52] In the 1980s, Tajikistan had the lowest household saving rate in the USSR,[56] the lowest percentage of households in the two top per capita income groups,[57] and the lowest rate of university graduates per 1000 people.[58] By the late 1980s Tajik nationalists were calling for increased rights. Real disturbances did not occur within the republic until 1990. The following year, the Soviet Union collapsed, and Tajikistan declared its independence on 9 September 1991, a day which is now celebrated as the country's Independence Day.[59]

See also[]

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  • 2006 Tajikistan earthquake
  • Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan
  • Central Asian Union
  • Dushanbe
  • Foreign relations of Tajikistan
  • Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province
  • Ittihodi Scouthoi Tojikiston
  • List of cities in Tajikistan
  • LGBT rights in Tajikistan
  • Mount Imeon
  • Outline of Tajikistan
  • Russian Turkistan
  • Telecommunications in Tajikistan
  • Yaghnob Valley

Notes[]

  1. ↑ Includes ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
  2. ↑ Includes ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
  3. ↑ English pronunciation: , English pronunciation:
  4. ↑ Template:Lang-tg, Template:IPA-tg; Template:Lang-ru, pronounced [tədʐːɨkʲɪˈstan]
  5. ↑ Template:Lang-tg, Template:IPA-tg

References[]

Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA document: "World Factbook".
Template:Country study

  1. ↑ Constitution of Tajikistan
  2. ↑ Национальный состав, владение языками и гражданство населения Республики Таджикистан Том III. stat.tj
  3. ↑ "2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Tajikistan". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2023.
  4. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pewforum.org
  5. ↑ "Tajikistan – World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 20 August 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021.
  6. ↑ M. A., Geography; B. A., Geography. "Ever Wonder What Residents of a Particular Country Are Called?". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 31 May 2019.
  7. ↑ "Democracy Index 2020". Economist Intelligence Unit. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Population, total - Tajikistan". Data. 8 February 2022. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
  9. ↑ Template:Cite CIA World Factbook
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. October 2022. Archived from the original on 24 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  11. ↑ "GINI index (World Bank estimate)". databank.worldbank.org. World Bank. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 3 February 2019.
  12. ↑ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  13. ↑ "КОНСТИТУЦИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ ТАДЖИКИСТАН". prokuratura.tj. Parliament of Tajikistan. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
  14. ↑ "Proto-urban Site of Sarazm". UNESCO.org. UNESCO. Archived from the original on 4 August 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
  15. ↑ Bergne, Paul (2007) The Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic, IB Taurus & Co Ltd, pg. 39–40
  16. ↑ "World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Tajikistan". Human Rights Watch. 15 January 2019. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  17. ↑ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. "Tajikistan's eternal ruler Emomali Rakhmon | DW | 12.10.2020". DW.COM. Archived from the original on 6 July 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
  18. ↑ "Tajikistan Ethnic groups – Demographics". www.indexmundi.com. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
  19. ↑ Ali Shir Nava'i Muhakamat al-lughatain tr. & ed. Robert Devereaux (Leiden: Brill) 1966 p6
  20. ↑ Anti-Armenian Riots Erupt in Soviet Republic of Tadzhikistan Archived 30 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Articles.latimes.com (2 November 1989). Retrieved on 20 January 2017.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 A Country Study: Tajikistan, Ethnic Background Archived 17 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Library of Congress Call Number DK851. K34 (1997)
  22. ↑ Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan : country studies Archived 20 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, page 206
  23. ↑ Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury, 2019, pp. 33–61.
  24. ↑ Richard Nelson Frye, "Persien: bis zum Einbruch des Islam" (original English title: "The Heritage Of Persia"), German version, tr. by Paul Baudisch, Kindler Verlag AG, Zürich 1964, pp. 485–498
  25. ↑ Frye, Richard Nelson (1996). The heritage of Central Asia from antiquity to the Turkish expansion. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 1-55876-110-1. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  26. ↑ Tajikistan: History Archived 12 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  27. ↑ Xiong, Victor Cunrui (6 April 2017). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-4422-7616-1. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  28. ↑ Xuanzang calls this region Kiumito which is thought to be Komdei of Ptolemy and Kumadh or Kumedh of Muslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 35, P. C. Bagch).
  29. ↑ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Proto-urban Site of Sarazm – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". unesco.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  30. ↑ Numerous scholars have located the Kamboja realm on the southern side of the Hindu Kush ranges in the Kabul, Swat, and Kunar Valleys, and the Parama-Kambojas in the territories on the north side of the Hindu Kush in modern-day Pamir and Badakhshan region in Tajikistan. See: Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 11-13, Moti Chandra – India; Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p 165/66, M. R. Singh
  31. ↑ Dr Buddha Prakash maintains that, based on the evidence of Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha, Raghu defeated the Hunas on river Vamkshu (Raghu vamsha 4.68), and then he marched against the Kambojas (4.69–70). These Kambojas were of Iranian affinities who lived in Pamirs and Badakshan. Xuanzang calls this region Kiumito which is thought to be Komdei of Ptolemy and Kumadh or Kumedh of Muslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; India and Central Asia, 1955, p 35, P. C. Bagch).
  32. ↑ See: The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala; Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 118, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī – Kamboja (Pakistan).
  33. ↑ C. Michael Hogan, "Silk Road, North China", The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham Archived 2 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Megalithic.co.uk. Retrieved on 20 January 2017.
  34. ↑ Shiji, trans. Burton Watson
  35. ↑ Frances Wood (2002) The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. University of California Press. p. 66. ISBN: 978-0-520-23786-5.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Tajikistan Archived 21 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine. loc.gov.
  37. ↑ "Encyclopedia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". eb.com. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
  38. ↑ Grousset, Rene (2004). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1.
  39. ↑ Svatopluk Soucek (2000). "Chapter 5 – The Qarakhanids". A history of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65704-4.
  40. ↑ ilak-khanids Archived 9 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: Iranica. accessed May 2014.
  41. ↑ "Tajikistan profile - Timeline". BBC News. 13 July 2018. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  42. ↑ "History of Central Asia – Under Russian rule". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  43. ↑ Whitman, John (1956). "Turkestan Cotton in Imperial Russia". American Slavic and East European Review. Cambridge University: Association for Slavic and Eurasian Studies. 15 (2): 190–205. doi:10.2307/3000976. JSTOR 3000976. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  44. ↑ Khalid, Adeeb (10 April 2018). "Jadidism in Central Asia: Origins, Development, and Fate Under the Soviets". Al Mesbar Studies and Research Centre. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  45. ↑ "Tajikistan – The Russian Conquest". Country Studies. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 "Tajikistan profile – Timeline". BBC News. BBC. 31 July 2018. Archived from the original on 2 May 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
  47. ↑ Pipes, Richard (1955). "Muslims of Soviet Central Asia: Trends and Prospects (Part I)". Middle East Journal. 9 (2): 149–150. JSTOR 4322692.
  48. ↑ "A Country Study: Tajikistan, Impact of the Civil War". U.S. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Tajikistan – Collectivization". countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Tajikistan – The Purges". countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012.
  51. ↑ Tajikistan – Ethnic Groups Archived 7 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Library of Congress
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 "Tajikistan – The Postwar Period". countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012.
  53. ↑ Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzaheh (2010) Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 2nd ed. p. 383. ISBN: 0810860619.
  54. ↑ Vadim Erlikman (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke. Moscow. pp. 23–35. ISBN: 5-93165-107-1
  55. ↑ C. Peter Chen. "Tajikistan in World War II". WW2DB. Archived from the original on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
  56. ↑ Boris Rumer (1989) Soviet Central Asia: A Tragic Experiment, Unwin Hyman, London. p. 126. ISBN: 0044451466.
  57. ↑ Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990, Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 115 (in Russian).
  58. ↑ Statistical Yearbook of the USSR 1990, Goskomstat, Moscow, 1991, p. 210 (in Russian).
  59. ↑ "Tajikistan celebrates Independence Day". Front News International. 9 September 2017. Archived from the original on 7 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.

Further reading[]

See also: Bibliography of the history of Central Asia
  • Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzadeh, Historical Dictionary of Tajikistan, 3rd. ed., Rowman & Littlefield, 2018.
  • Shirin Akiner, Mohammad-Reza Djalili and Frederic Grare, eds., Tajikistan: The Trials of Independence, Routledge, 1998.
  • Richard Foltz, A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
  • Robert Middleton, Huw Thomas and Markus Hauser, Tajikistan and the High Pamirs, Hong Kong: Odyssey Books, 2008 (ISBN: 978-9-622177-73-4).
  • Nahaylo, Bohdan and Victor Swoboda. Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities problem in the USSR (1990) excerpt
  • Kirill Nourdhzanov and Christian Blauer, Tajikistan: A Political and Social History, Canberra: ANU E-Press, 2013.
  • Rashid, Ahmed. The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (2017)
  • Smith, Graham, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (2nd ed. 1995)
  • Monica Whitlock, Land Beyond the River: The Untold Story of Central Asia, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
  • Poopak NikTalab. Sarve Samarghand (Cedar of Samarkand), continuous interpretation of Rudaki's poems, Tehran 2020, Faradid Publications {Introduction}
  • Sharma, Raj Kumar, "Food Security and Political Stability in Tajikistan", New Delhi, Vij Books, 2018.

External links[]

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Template:Tajikistan topics

Coordinates: 39°N 71°E / 39°N 71°E / 39; 71

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