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Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the [[War on Terror]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)|invading Afghanistan]] to depose the [[Taliban]], which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their [[anti-terrorism legislation]] and expanded the powers of [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement]] and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]] to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaeda's leader, [[Osama bin Laden]], initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he claimed [[Responsibility for the September 11 attacks|responsibility for the attacks]].<ref name="cbc-2004">{{cite news|title = Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11|publisher = CBC News|date=October 29, 2004|url = http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2004/10/29/binladen_message041029.html|accessdate=September 1, 2011 |quote=Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States.}}</ref> Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited [[Israel–United States relations|U.S. support of Israel]], the presence of [[Operation Southern Watch|U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia]], and [[Iraq sanctions|sanctions against Iraq]] as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, [[Death of Osama bin Laden|bin Laden was located and killed]] by [[SEAL Team Six]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] in May 2011.
 
Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the [[War on Terror]] and [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)|invading Afghanistan]] to depose the [[Taliban]], which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their [[anti-terrorism legislation]] and expanded the powers of [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement]] and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]] to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaeda's leader, [[Osama bin Laden]], initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he claimed [[Responsibility for the September 11 attacks|responsibility for the attacks]].<ref name="cbc-2004">{{cite news|title = Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11|publisher = CBC News|date=October 29, 2004|url = http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2004/10/29/binladen_message041029.html|accessdate=September 1, 2011 |quote=Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States.}}</ref> Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited [[Israel–United States relations|U.S. support of Israel]], the presence of [[Operation Southern Watch|U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia]], and [[Iraq sanctions|sanctions against Iraq]] as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, [[Death of Osama bin Laden|bin Laden was located and killed]] by [[SEAL Team Six]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] in May 2011.
   
The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of [[Lower Manhattan]] and had a significant effect on global markets, closing [[Wall Street]] until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many [[Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks|closings, evacuations, and cancellations]] followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the [[World Trade Center site]] was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. On November 18, 2006, [[Construction of One World Trade Center|construction]] of [[One World Trade Center]] began at the World Trade Center site. The building was officially opened on November 3, 2014.<ref name="MooreOneWTC">{{cite web|last=Moore|first=Jack|title=World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America|url=http://onewtc.com/news/world-trade-center-re-opens-as-tallest-building-in-america|publisher=One World Trade Center|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=November 3, 2014|accessdate=September 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Aaron|title=One World Trade Center opens today|url=http://money.cnn.com/2014/11/03/news/companies/one-world-trade-center/index.html|website=CNN Money|date=November 3, 2014|accessdate=November 4, 2014}}</ref> Numerous [[Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks|memorials]] have been constructed, including the [[National September 11 Memorial & Museum]] in New York City, the [[Pentagon Memorial]] in Arlington County, Virginia, and the [[Flight 93 National Memorial]] in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.
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The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of [[Lower Manhattan]] and had a significant effect on global markets, closing [[Wall Street]] until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many [[Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks|closings, evacuations, and cancellations]] followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the [[World Trade Center site]] was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. On November 18, 2006, [[Construction of One World Trade Center|construction]] of [[One World Trade Center]] began at the World Trade Center site. The building was officially opened on November 3, 2014.<ref name="MooreOneWTC">{{cite web|last=Moore|first=Jack|title=World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206003426/http://onewtc.com/news/world-trade-center-re-opens-as-tallest-building-in-america|publisher=One World Trade Center|work=[[International Business Times]]|date=November 3, 2014|accessdate=September 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Smith|first=Aaron|title=One World Trade Center opens today|url=http://money.cnn.com/2014/11/03/news/companies/one-world-trade-center/index.html|website=CNN Money|date=November 3, 2014|accessdate=November 4, 2014}}</ref> Numerous [[Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks|memorials]] have been constructed, including the [[National September 11 Memorial & Museum]] in New York City, the [[Pentagon Memorial]] in Arlington County, Virginia, and the [[Flight 93 National Memorial]] in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.
   
 
==Background==
 
==Background==
   
 
===Al-Qaeda{{anchor|Al-Qaeda}}===
 
===Al-Qaeda{{anchor|Al-Qaeda}}===
 
{{Campaignbox al-Qaeda attacks}} {{Further|Al-Qaeda|Jihad}} The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan]]. Osama bin Laden traveled to [[Afghanistan]] and helped organize Arab [[mujahideen]] to resist the [[Soviet]]s.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC News|title=Al-Qaeda's origins and links|date=July 20, 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1670089.stm|accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Under the guidance of [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], bin Laden became more radical.<ref name="gunaratna-p23">Gunaratna (2002), pp. 23–33.</ref> In 1996, bin Laden issued his first ''[[fatwā]]'', calling for American soldiers to leave [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |title=Bin Laden's fatwā (1996) |publisher=PBS |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011031024057/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |archivedate=October 31, 2001 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
{{Campaignbox al-Qaeda attacks}}
 
{{Further|Al-Qaeda|Jihad}}
 
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan]]. Osama bin Laden traveled to [[Afghanistan]] and helped organize Arab [[mujahideen]] to resist the [[Soviet]]s.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=BBC News|title=Al-Qaeda's origins and links|date=July 20, 2004|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1670089.stm|accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Under the guidance of [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], bin Laden became more radical.<ref name="gunaratna-p23">Gunaratna (2002), pp. 23–33.</ref> In 1996, bin Laden issued his first ''[[fatwā]]'', calling for American soldiers to leave [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |title=Bin Laden's fatwā (1996) |publisher=PBS |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011031024057/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html |archivedate=October 31, 2001 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
 
   
 
In a second ''fatwā'' in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to [[Foreign policy of the United States|American foreign policy]] with respect to [[Israel]], as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the [[Gulf War]].<ref name="1998FatwaPBS">{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archivedate=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |deadurl=no |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed. [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]] "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the [[jihad]] is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.<ref name="1998FatwaPBS" />
 
In a second ''fatwā'' in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to [[Foreign policy of the United States|American foreign policy]] with respect to [[Israel]], as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the [[Gulf War]].<ref name="1998FatwaPBS">{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archivedate=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |deadurl=no |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed. [[Ulama|Muslim legal scholars]] "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the [[jihad]] is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.<ref name="1998FatwaPBS" />
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{{Further|Osama bin Laden|Death of Osama bin Laden|Videos of Osama bin Laden}}
 
{{Further|Osama bin Laden|Death of Osama bin Laden|Videos of Osama bin Laden}}
 
[[File:Osama bin Laden portrait.jpg|thumb|right|upright|1997 picture of Osama bin Laden]]
 
[[File:Osama bin Laden portrait.jpg|thumb|right|upright|1997 picture of Osama bin Laden]]
Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement.<ref name="cbc-2004" /><ref name="BBC6Jul2011">{{cite news |title=Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14041604 |publisher=BBC |date=July 6, 2011 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ajNov2004">{{cite news|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613014620/http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |archivedate=June 13, 2007 |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |title=Full transcript of bin Laden's speech |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=November 2, 2004 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]] broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16, 2001, stating, "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34440,00.html |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=September 16, 2001 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan]]. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to [[Khaled bin Ouda bin Mohammed al-Harbi|Khaled al-Harbi]] and [[Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden#December 13, 2001|admits foreknowledge]] of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly' |publisher=CNN |date=December 14, 2001 |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227125232/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archivedate=December 27, 2007 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=November 24, 2013 |quote=Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly".}}</ref> On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, "It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of [[crusaders]]. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred", but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts |publisher=BBC News |date=December 27, 2001 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1729882.stm |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims.
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Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement.<ref name="cbc-2004" /><ref name="BBC6Jul2011">{{cite news |title=Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14041604 |publisher=BBC |date=July 6, 2011 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref name="ajNov2004">{{cite news|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613014620/http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |archivedate=June 13, 2007 |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=7403 |title=Full transcript of bin Laden's speech |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=November 2, 2004 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> [[Al Jazeera]] broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16, 2001, stating, "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010916152402/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,34440,00.html |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=September 16, 2001 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan]]. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to [[Khaled bin Ouda bin Mohammed al-Harbi|Khaled al-Harbi]] and [[Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden#December 13, 2001|admits foreknowledge]] of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly' |publisher=CNN |date=December 14, 2001 |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227125232/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/12/13/ret.bin.laden.videotape/ |archivedate=December 27, 2007 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=November 24, 2013 |quote=Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly".}}</ref> On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, "It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of [[crusaders]]. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred", but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|title=Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts |publisher=BBC News |date=December 27, 2001 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1729882.stm |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims.
   
Shortly before the [[United States presidential election, 2004|U.S. presidential election in 2004]], in a [[2004 Osama bin Laden video|taped statement]], bin Laden publicly acknowledged al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks. He said that the attacks were carried out because, "we are free&nbsp;... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours."<ref>{{cite news|last=Michael |first=Maggie |url=http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20041029-1423-binladentape.html |title=Bin Laden, in statement to U.S. people, says he ordered Sept. 11 attacks |agency=Associated Press |publisher=SignOnSanDiego.com |date=October 29, 2004 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.<ref name="ajNov2004" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Al-Jazeera: Bin Laden tape obtained in Pakistan |publisher=MSNBC |date=October 30, 2004|url=http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6363306/ |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], as they make preparations for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2006/09/07/al-qaeda-tape.html |title=Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=September 7, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183902/http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2006/09/07/al-qaeda-tape.html |archivedate=October 13, 2007 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9/11 attacks but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in [[Dar es Salaam, Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi, Kenya]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Clewley |first=Robin|title=How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=September 27, 2001 |url=https://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526032503/http://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |archivedate=May 26, 2008 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=USAMA BIN LADEN |url=https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/usama-bin-laden|work=FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 10, 2011}}</ref> After a 10-year manhunt, bin Laden was [[death of Osama bin Laden|killed by American special forces]] in a [[Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad|compound]] in [[Abbottabad]], Pakistan on May 2, 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?hp |title=Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |author2=Cooper, Helene |date=May 1, 2011 |work=New York Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/01/bin-laden-dead-u-s-official-says/?scp=3&sq=Abbottabad,%20Pakistan%20&st=cse |title=Obama Announces Killing of Osama bin Laden |last=Cooper|first=Helene|date=May 1, 2011 |work=New York Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
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Shortly before the [[United States presidential election, 2004|U.S. presidential election in 2004]], in a [[2004 Osama bin Laden video|taped statement]], bin Laden publicly acknowledged al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks. He said that the attacks were carried out because, "we are free&nbsp;... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours."<ref>{{cite news|last=Michael |first=Maggie |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810181626/http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/nation/terror/20041029-1423-binladentape.html |title=Bin Laden, in statement to U.S. people, says he ordered Sept. 11 attacks |agency=Associated Press |publisher=SignOnSanDiego.com |date=October 29, 2004 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.<ref name="ajNov2004" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Al-Jazeera: Bin Laden tape obtained in Pakistan |publisher=MSNBC |date=October 30, 2004|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030061455/http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6363306/ |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], as they make preparations for the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2006/09/07/al-qaeda-tape.html |title=Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired |publisher=[[CBC News]] |date=September 7, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183902/http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2006/09/07/al-qaeda-tape.html |archivedate=October 13, 2007 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9/11 attacks but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in [[Dar es Salaam, Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi, Kenya]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Clewley |first=Robin|title=How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10 |work=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=September 27, 2001 |url=https://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526032503/http://www.wired.com/politics/law/news/2001/09/47109 |archivedate=May 26, 2008 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=USAMA BIN LADEN |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101011161759/https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/usama-bin-laden|work=FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 10, 2011}}</ref> After a 10-year manhunt, bin Laden was [[death of Osama bin Laden|killed by American special forces]] in a [[Osama bin Laden's compound in Abbottabad|compound]] in [[Abbottabad]], Pakistan on May 2, 2011.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?hp |title=Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |author2=Cooper, Helene |date=May 1, 2011 |work=New York Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/05/01/bin-laden-dead-u-s-official-says/?scp=3&sq=Abbottabad,%20Pakistan%20&st=cse |title=Obama Announces Killing of Osama bin Laden |last=Cooper|first=Helene|date=May 1, 2011 |work=New York Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
   
 
====Khalid Sheikh Mohammed====
 
====Khalid Sheikh Mohammed====
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In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of [[Zacarias Moussaoui]], five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, [[Abu Turab al-Urduni]], and Mohammed Atef.<ref>{{cite web |title=Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|page=24 |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/defense/941.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref> To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.
 
In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of [[Zacarias Moussaoui]], five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, [[Abu Turab al-Urduni]], and Mohammed Atef.<ref>{{cite web |title=Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed|page=24 |url=http://www.vaed.uscourts.gov/notablecases/moussaoui/exhibits/defense/941.pdf |year=2006 |publisher=[[United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia]] |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref> To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.
   
On September 26, 2005, the [[Audiencia Nacional of Spain|Spanish high court]] sentenced [[Abu Dahdah]] to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/spain-jails-18-alqaeda-operatives/2005/09/27/1127586828047.html |title=Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives|work=The Age |location=Melbourne |date=September 27, 2005 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.<ref>{{cite news |first=Philippe |last=Naughton |title=Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction |date=June 1, 2006 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article670596.ece |work=The Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
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On September 26, 2005, the [[Audiencia Nacional of Spain|Spanish high court]] sentenced [[Abu Dahdah]] to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/spain-jails-18-alqaeda-operatives/2005/09/27/1127586828047.html |title=Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives|work=The Age |location=Melbourne |date=September 27, 2005 |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.<ref>{{cite news |first=Philippe |last=Naughton |title=Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction |date=June 1, 2006 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511184820/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article670596.ece |work=The Times |accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
   
 
Also, in 2006, Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States.<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Youssef|first=Maamoun|title=Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11|agency=Associated Press|date=May 24, 2006|newspaper=Washington Post|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/23/AR2006052301688.html}}</ref> [[Mounir el-Motassadeq]], an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks.<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 542n.</ref>
 
Also, in 2006, Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States.<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Youssef|first=Maamoun|title=Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11|agency=Associated Press|date=May 24, 2006|newspaper=Washington Post|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/23/AR2006052301688.html}}</ref> [[Mounir el-Motassadeq]], an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks.<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 542n.</ref>
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In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to [[Mecca]]", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.<ref name="guardian-20010926">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/26/afghanistan.terrorism3 |title=Face to face with Osama |work=The Guardian |date=September 26, 2001|location=London|accessdate=September 3, 2011 |first=Rahimullah | last=Yusufzai}}</ref> One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pape |first= Robert A. |authorlink= Robert Pape |title= [[Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism]] |year= 2005 |publisher= Random House |location= New York |isbn= 0-8129-7338-0}}</ref>
 
In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to [[Mecca]]", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.<ref name="guardian-20010926">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/26/afghanistan.terrorism3 |title=Face to face with Osama |work=The Guardian |date=September 26, 2001|location=London|accessdate=September 3, 2011 |first=Rahimullah | last=Yusufzai}}</ref> One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pape |first= Robert A. |authorlink= Robert Pape |title= [[Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism]] |year= 2005 |publisher= Random House |location= New York |isbn= 0-8129-7338-0}}</ref>
   
In the 1998 ''fatwā'', al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade"<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā" /> among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā" /> The ''fatwā'' declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies&nbsp;– civilians and military&nbsp;– is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the holy mosque of [[Mecca]] from their grip, and in order for their [the Americans'] armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."<ref name="1998FatwaPBS" /><ref>See also the 1998 [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|Al-Qaeda ''fatwā'']]: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies&nbsp;– civilians and military&nbsp;– is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from {{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archivedate=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |deadurl=no |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
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In the 1998 ''fatwā'', al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade"<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā" /> among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."<ref name="1998 Al Qaeda fatwā" /> The ''fatwā'' declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies&nbsp;– civilians and military&nbsp;– is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] and the holy mosque of [[Mecca]] from their grip, and in order for their the Americans' armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."<ref name="1998FatwaPBS" /><ref>See also the 1998 [[Fatawā of Osama bin Laden|Al-Qaeda ''fatwā'']]: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies&nbsp;– civilians and military&nbsp;– is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from {{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-jan-june98-fatwa_1998/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131128194258/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military/jan-june98/fatwa_1998.html|archivedate=November 28, 2013 |title=Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] |deadurl=no |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
   
 
Bin Laden claimed, in 2004, that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the [[1982 Lebanon War]].<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.</ref><ref>Lawrence (2005), p. 239.</ref> Some analysts, including Mearsheimer and Walt, also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel.<ref name=isrsources /><ref name="guardian-20010926" /> In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html%20online%20here|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=24 August 2016|date=November 4, 2004}}</ref><ref>In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. … The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]] is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from [http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216081625/http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 |date=December 16, 2016 }}, in Haaretz.com</ref>
 
Bin Laden claimed, in 2004, that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the [[1982 Lebanon War]].<ref>Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.</ref><ref>Lawrence (2005), p. 239.</ref> Some analysts, including Mearsheimer and Walt, also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel.<ref name=isrsources /><ref name="guardian-20010926" /> In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/archive/2004/11/200849163336457223.html%20online%20here|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=24 August 2016|date=November 4, 2004}}</ref><ref>In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. … The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian [[Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab]] is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from [http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161216081625/http://www.haaretz.com/news/bin-laden-attacks-on-u-s-to-go-on-as-long-as-it-supports-israel-1.265770 |date=December 16, 2016 }}, in Haaretz.com</ref>
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In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate [[Khallad]] contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]; Hazmi and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]] would also be in attendance. The [[NSA]] intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared that "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action. The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's [[Dubai]] hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While [[Alec Station]] alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The [[Malaysian Special Branch]] observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members, and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to [[Bangkok]], but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the [[State Department]] to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting, but was told that "'This is not a matter for the FBI.'"{{sfn|Wright|2006|pp=310-312}}
 
In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate [[Khallad]] contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]; Hazmi and [[Abu Bara al Yemeni]] would also be in attendance. The [[NSA]] intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared that "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action. The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's [[Dubai]] hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While [[Alec Station]] alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The [[Malaysian Special Branch]] observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members, and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to [[Bangkok]], but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the [[State Department]] to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting, but was told that "'This is not a matter for the FBI.'"{{sfn|Wright|2006|pp=310-312}}
   
By late June, senior counter-terrorism official [[Richard A. Clarke|Richard Clarke]] and CIA director [[George Tenet]] were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=235-236}} In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them that "Something really spectacular is going to happen here... soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] to go to "Threat Condition Delta."{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=344}}{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=236-237}} Clarke would later write that "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States... in [the] FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States... They had specific information about individual terrorists... None of that information got to me or the White House."{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=242-243}}
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By late June, senior counter-terrorism official [[Richard A. Clarke|Richard Clarke]] and CIA director [[George Tenet]] were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=235-236}} In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them that "Something really spectacular is going to happen here. soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] to go to "Threat Condition Delta."{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=344}}{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=236-237}} Clarke would later write that "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States... in the FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States. They had specific information about individual terrorists. None of that information got to me or the White House."{{sfn|Clarke|2004|pp=242-243}}
   
 
On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's [[Counterterrorism Center]] (CTC), requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. However, the CIA never responded.{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=340}}
 
On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's [[Counterterrorism Center]] (CTC), requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. However, the CIA never responded.{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=340}}
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===Events===
 
===Events===
 
[[File:September 11 attack seen from space by nasa.jpg|thumb|Plume of September 11 attack seen from space by [[NASA]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Jones|first=Jonathan|title=The 9/11 attack seen from space – an image of impotence|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/10/911-attack-seen-from-space-image-impotence|newspaper=''[[The Guardian]]''|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6O0cC7vk0?url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/10/911-attack-seen-from-space-image-impotence|archivedate=March 12, 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref>]]
 
[[File:September 11 attack seen from space by nasa.jpg|thumb|Plume of September 11 attack seen from space by [[NASA]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Jones|first=Jonathan|title=The 9/11 attack seen from space – an image of impotence|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/10/911-attack-seen-from-space-image-impotence|newspaper=''[[The Guardian]]''|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6O0cC7vk0?url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/mar/10/911-attack-seen-from-space-image-impotence|archivedate=March 12, 2014|deadurl=no}}</ref>]]
At 8:46&nbsp;a.m., five hijackers crashed [[American Airlines Flight 11]] into the northern façade of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]'s North Tower (1&nbsp;WTC), and at 9:03&nbsp;a.m., another five hijackers crashed [[United Airlines Flight 175]] into the southern façade of the South Tower (2&nbsp;WTC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc01.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc03.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – United Airlines Flight 175 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref> Five hijackers flew [[American Airlines Flight 77]] into [[the Pentagon]] at 9:37&nbsp;a.m.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref> A fourth flight, [[United Airlines Flight 93]], under the control of four hijackers, crashed near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03&nbsp;a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers. Flight 93's target is believed to have been either the [[U.S. Capitol|Capitol]] or the [[White House]].<ref name="Chap7">{{cite book|chapter=The Attack Looms |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> Flight 93's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11, 77, and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning.<ref name="WP93">{{cite news|first=David |last=Snyder |title=Families Hear Flight&nbsp;93's Final Moments |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-351703.html|work=The Washington Post |date=April 19, 2002 |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane, the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it.<ref name="Fox93Xscript">{{cite news|title=Text of Flight 93 Recording |publisher=Fox News |date=April 12, 2006 |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2006/04/12/text-flight-3-recording/ |accessdate=November 11, 2013}}</ref><ref name='Flight93Story'>{{cite web | url = http://www.nps.gov/flni/historyculture/index.htm |title=The Flight 93 Story |accessdate=September 21, 2011 | publisher = National Park Service}}</ref> [[File:September 11 2001 just collapsed.jpg|thumb|upright|Collapse of the Towers]]
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At 8:46&nbsp;a.m., five hijackers crashed [[American Airlines Flight 11]] into the northern façade of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]'s North Tower (1&nbsp;WTC), and at 9:03&nbsp;a.m., another five hijackers crashed [[United Airlines Flight 175]] into the southern façade of the South Tower (2&nbsp;WTC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc01.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc03.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – United Airlines Flight 175 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref> Five hijackers flew [[American Airlines Flight 77]] into [[the Pentagon]] at 9:37&nbsp;a.m.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB196/doc02.pdf |title=Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=National Transportation Safety Board |date=February 19, 2002 |format=PDF}}</ref> A fourth flight, [[United Airlines Flight 93]], under the control of four hijackers, crashed near [[Shanksville, Pennsylvania]], southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03&nbsp;a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers. Flight 93's target is believed to have been either the [[U.S. Capitol|Capitol]] or the [[White House]].<ref name="Chap7">{{cite book|chapter=The Attack Looms |url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch7.htm |year=2004 |title=9/11 Commission Report |publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> Flight 93's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11, 77, and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning.<ref name="WP93">{{cite news|first=David |last=Snyder |title=Families Hear Flight&nbsp;93's Final Moments |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602123513/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-351703.html|work=The Washington Post |date=April 19, 2002 |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane, the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it.<ref name="Fox93Xscript">{{cite news|title=Text of Flight 93 Recording |publisher=Fox News |date=April 12, 2006 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017235500/http://www.foxnews.com/story/2006/04/12/text-flight-3-recording/ |accessdate=November 11, 2013}}</ref><ref name='Flight93Story'>{{cite web | url = http://www.nps.gov/flni/historyculture/index.htm |title=The Flight 93 Story |accessdate=September 21, 2011 | publisher = National Park Service}}</ref> [[File:September 11 2001 just collapsed.jpg|thumb|upright|Collapse of the Towers]]
   
 
[[File:North face south tower after plane strike 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The north face of [[Two World Trade Center]] (south tower) immediately after being struck by [[United Airlines Flight 175]]]]
 
[[File:North face south tower after plane strike 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The north face of [[Two World Trade Center]] (south tower) immediately after being struck by [[United Airlines Flight 175]]]]
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used [[mace (spray)|mace]], tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.<ref name="93phone">{{cite news|url=http://old.post-gazette.com/headlines/20010916phonecallnat3p3.asp |title=The phone line from Flight 93 was still open when a GTE operator heard Todd Beamer say: 'Are you guys ready? Let's roll' |publisher=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |date=September 16, 2001 |last=McKinnon|first=Jim |accessdate=April 10, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://europe.cnn.com/2001/US/09/12/family.reacts/index.html |title=Relatives wait for news as rescuers dig |publisher=CNN |date=September 13, 2001 |accessdate=November 11, 2013}}</ref><ref>Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 58, 463n, 476n.</ref><ref name="wilgoren">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B03E5DB1038F930A2575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed To Perish Fighting |last=Wilgoren|first=Jodi and Edward Wong |date=September 13, 2001 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/apr/11/nation/na-moussa11 |title=Moussaoui Jury Hears the Panic From 9/11 |last=Serrano|first=Richard A. |work=Los Angeles Times |date=April 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Hijackers-used-Mace-knives-to-take-over-2805009.php |title=Hijackers used Mace, knives to take over airplanes |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=January 28, 2004 |last1=Goo |first1=Sara Kehaulani |author2=Eggen, Dan |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name="CNN1">{{cite news|last = Ahlers| first = Mike M.|title = 9/11 panel: Hijackers may have had utility knives|publisher= CBS News |date=January 27, 2004| url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/01/27/911.commis.knife/|accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.<ref name="911-ch1">9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0201/06/lklw.00.html |title=Encore Presentation: Barbara Olson Remembered |work=Larry King Live |publisher=CNN |date=January 6, 2002 |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted [[Leatherman]]-type utility knives with locking blades, which were not forbidden to passengers at the time, but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.<ref name="commission">{{cite web| title=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States| url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/archive/hearing7/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-01-27.htm| publisher=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States| accessdate=January 24, 2008 |date=January 27, 2004}}</ref><ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 343.</ref> A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.<ref name=911-ch1 />
+
Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used [[mace (spray)|mace]], tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.<ref name="93phone">{{cite news|url=http://old.post-gazette.com/headlines/20010916phonecallnat3p3.asp |title=The phone line from Flight 93 was still open when a GTE operator heard Todd Beamer say: 'Are you guys ready? Let's roll' |publisher=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |date=September 16, 2001 |last=McKinnon|first=Jim |accessdate=April 10, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010912170505/http://europe.cnn.com/2001/US/09/12/family.reacts/index.html |title=Relatives wait for news as rescuers dig |publisher=CNN |date=September 13, 2001 |accessdate=November 11, 2013}}</ref><ref>Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 58, 463n, 476n.</ref><ref name="wilgoren">{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B03E5DB1038F930A2575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=On Doomed Flight, Passengers Vowed To Perish Fighting |last=Wilgoren|first=Jodi and Edward Wong |date=September 13, 2001 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2006/apr/11/nation/na-moussa11 |title=Moussaoui Jury Hears the Panic From 9/11 |last=Serrano|first=Richard A. |work=Los Angeles Times |date=April 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/Hijackers-used-Mace-knives-to-take-over-2805009.php |title=Hijackers used Mace, knives to take over airplanes |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=January 28, 2004 |last1=Goo |first1=Sara Kehaulani |author2=Eggen, Dan |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name="CNN1">{{cite news|last = Ahlers| first = Mike M.|title = 9/11 panel: Hijackers may have had utility knives|publisher= CBS News |date=January 27, 2004| url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/01/27/911.commis.knife/|accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.<ref name="911-ch1">9/11 Commission Report, pp. 4–14.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0201/06/lklw.00.html |title=Encore Presentation: Barbara Olson Remembered |work=Larry King Live |publisher=CNN |date=January 6, 2002 |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref> According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted [[Leatherman]]-type utility knives with locking blades, which were not forbidden to passengers at the time, but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.<ref name="commission">{{cite web| title=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States| url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/archive/hearing7/9-11Commission_Hearing_2004-01-27.htm| publisher=National Commission Upon Terrorist Attacks in the United States| accessdate=January 24, 2008 |date=January 27, 2004}}</ref><ref>Summers and Swan (2011), p. 343.</ref> A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.<ref name=911-ch1 />
   
 
[[Collapse of the World Trade Center|Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed]] due to fire-induced structural failure.<ref name="WPCollapse">{{cite news|first=Bill |last=Miller |title=Skyscraper Protection Might Not Be Feasible, Federal Engineers Say |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2002-05-01/news/0205010358_1_engineers-jet-fuel |work=Orlando Sentinel |date=May 1, 2002 |accessdate=November 24, 2013}}</ref> The South Tower collapsed at 9:59&nbsp;a.m. after burning for 56&nbsp;minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel.<ref name="WPCollapse" /> The North Tower collapsed at 10:28&nbsp;a.m. after burning for 102&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="WPCollapse" /> When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby [[7 World Trade Center]] building (7&nbsp;WTC), damaging it and starting fires. These fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7&nbsp;WTC collapsed at 5:21&nbsp;p.m.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study'', Ch. 5 WTC 7&nbsp;– section 5.5.4</ref><ref>''Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7'', p. xxxvii.</ref> The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage.
 
[[Collapse of the World Trade Center|Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed]] due to fire-induced structural failure.<ref name="WPCollapse">{{cite news|first=Bill |last=Miller |title=Skyscraper Protection Might Not Be Feasible, Federal Engineers Say |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2002-05-01/news/0205010358_1_engineers-jet-fuel |work=Orlando Sentinel |date=May 1, 2002 |accessdate=November 24, 2013}}</ref> The South Tower collapsed at 9:59&nbsp;a.m. after burning for 56&nbsp;minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel.<ref name="WPCollapse" /> The North Tower collapsed at 10:28&nbsp;a.m. after burning for 102&nbsp;minutes.<ref name="WPCollapse" /> When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby [[7 World Trade Center]] building (7&nbsp;WTC), damaging it and starting fires. These fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7&nbsp;WTC collapsed at 5:21&nbsp;p.m.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study'', Ch. 5 WTC 7&nbsp;– section 5.5.4</ref><ref>''Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Building 7'', p. xxxvii.</ref> The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage.
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[[File:French Urban Search and Rescue.jpg|thumb|left|Urban Search and Rescue Task Force [[German Shepherd]] dog works to uncover survivors at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center after the September 11, 2001, attacks.]]
 
[[File:French Urban Search and Rescue.jpg|thumb|left|Urban Search and Rescue Task Force [[German Shepherd]] dog works to uncover survivors at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center after the September 11, 2001, attacks.]]
At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers (as exemplified in the photograph ''[[The Falling Man]]''), landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below.<ref name="horrificdecision">{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-09-02-jumper_x.htm |title=Desperation forced a horrific decision |publisher=USATODAY|date=September 2, 2002 |last1=Cauchon |first1=Dennis |author2=Moore, Martha|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Paltrow|first1=Scot|title=Could Helicopters Have Saved People From the Top of the Trade Center?|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1003784754436648720|website=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=22 January 2017}}</ref> No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/05/18/terror/main618174.shtml |title=Poor Info Hindered 9/11 Rescue|publisher=CBS News |date=May 18, 2004|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
+
At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers (as exemplified in the photograph ''[[The Falling Man]]''), landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below.<ref name="horrificdecision">{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/sept11/2002-09-02-jumper_x.htm |title=Desperation forced a horrific decision |publisher=USATODAY|date=September 2, 2002 |last1=Cauchon |first1=Dennis |author2=Moore, Martha|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Paltrow|first1=Scot|title=Could Helicopters Have Saved People From the Top of the Trade Center?|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1003784754436648720|website=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=22 January 2017}}</ref> No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/05/18/terror/main618174.shtml |title=Poor Info Hindered 9/11 Rescue|publisher=CBS News |date=May 18, 2004|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires. The [[New York City Fire Department]] (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a [[chaplain]] and two [[paramedics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nyfd.com/9_11_wtc.html|title=THE UNOFFICIAL HOME PAGE OF FDNY|publisher=}}</ref> The [[New York City Police Department]] (NYPD) lost 23 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Post-9/11 report recommends police, fire response changes |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-08-19-nypd-nyfd-report_x.htm |date=August 19, 2002|agency=Associated Press |work=USA Today |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Port Authority Police Department]] (PAPD) lost 37 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Police back on day-to-day beat after 9/11 nightmare|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/07/20/wtc.police/ |date=July 21, 2002 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-memorial.org/Tribute/EMS/medics.html|title=EMT & Paramedics|publisher=}}</ref>
A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires. The [[New York City Fire Department]] (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a [[chaplain]] and two [[paramedics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nyfd.com/9_11_wtc.html|title=THE UNOFFICIAL HOME PAGE OF FDNY|publisher=}}</ref> The [[New York City Police Department]] (NYPD) lost 23 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Post-9/11 report recommends police, fire response changes |url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-08-19-nypd-nyfd-report_x.htm |date=August 19, 2002|agency=Associated Press |work=USA Today |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Port Authority Police Department]] (PAPD) lost 37 officers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Police back on day-to-day beat after 9/11 nightmare|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/US/07/20/wtc.police/ |date=July 21, 2002 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=November 12, 2013}}</ref> Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-memorial.org/Tribute/EMS/medics.html|title=EMT & Paramedics|publisher=}}</ref>
 
   
[[Cantor Fitzgerald]] L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of the North Tower, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5282060.stm?lsf |title=Cantor rebuilds after 9/11 losses |publisher=BBC |date=September 4, 2006 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> [[Marsh & McLennan Companies|Marsh Inc.]], located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://memorial.mmc.com/ | title=Marsh & McLennan Companies 9/11 Memorial| accessdate=September 7, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mmc.com/about/history.php | title=Milestones of Marsh & McLennan Companies | accessdate=September 7, 2011}}</ref> and 175 employees of [[Aon Corporation]] were also killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20070911/REG/70911011 |title=Industry honors fallen on 9/11 anniversary |publisher=InvestmentNews |last=Siegel|first=Aaron |date=September 11, 2007 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45&nbsp;a.m.<ref>Averill (2005), chapter "Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications", pp ??</ref><ref>Dwyer and Flynn (2005), p. 266.</ref> Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63 |title=Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |last1=Dwyer |first1=Jim |work=New York Times |date=May 26, 2002 |accessdate=September 2, 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
+
[[Cantor Fitzgerald]] L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of the North Tower, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5282060.stm?lsf |title=Cantor rebuilds after 9/11 losses |publisher=BBC |date=September 4, 2006 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> [[Marsh & McLennan Companies|Marsh Inc.]], located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://memorial.mmc.com/ | title=Marsh & McLennan Companies 9/11 Memorial| accessdate=September 7, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020708142047/http://www.mmc.com/about/history.php | title=Milestones of Marsh & McLennan Companies | accessdate=September 7, 2011}}</ref> and 175 employees of [[Aon Corporation]] were also killed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.investmentnews.com/article/20070911/REG/70911011 |title=Industry honors fallen on 9/11 anniversary |publisher=InvestmentNews |last=Siegel|first=Aaron |date=September 11, 2007 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45&nbsp;a.m.<ref>Averill (2005), chapter "Occupant Behavior, Egress, and Emergency Communications", pp ??</ref><ref>Dwyer and Flynn (2005), p. 266.</ref> Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E6DC153BF935A15756C0A9649C8B63 |title=Last Words at the Trade Center; Fighting to Live as the Towers Die |last1=Dwyer |first1=Jim |work=New York Times |date=May 26, 2002 |accessdate=September 2, 2011|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:280px; font-size:90%; float:right; margin-left:10px"
 
{| class="wikitable" style="width:280px; font-size:90%; float:right; margin-left:10px"
 
|-
 
|-
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|-
 
|-
 
| [[American Airlines Flight 11|American 11]]
 
| [[American Airlines Flight 11|American 11]]
| 87 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page93.html |title=American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
+
| 87 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011215021721/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page93.html |title=American Airlines Flight 11 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
 
| [[United Airlines Flight 175|United 175]]
 
| [[United Airlines Flight 175|United 175]]
| 60 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page100.html |title=United Airlines Flight 175 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
+
| 60 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021022012840/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page100.html |title=United Airlines Flight 175 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
 
!rowspan="2"| Arlington
 
!rowspan="2"| Arlington
 
| [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]
 
| [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]
| 125<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page88.html |title=Pentagon |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
+
| 125<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011214003735/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page88.html |title=Pentagon |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
| [[American Airlines Flight 77|American 77]] || 59 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page96.html |title=American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
+
| [[American Airlines Flight 77|American 77]] || 59 + 5<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020202180912/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/memorial/lists/by-location/page96.html |title=American Airlines Flight 77 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref>
 
|-
 
|-
 
! {{nobr|Near Shanksville}}
 
! {{nobr|Near Shanksville}}
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| {{nobr|2,977 + 19}}
 
| {{nobr|2,977 + 19}}
 
|}
 
|}
Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/29/gen.america.under.attack/index.html |title=Source: Hijacking suspects linked to Afghanistan |publisher=CNN |date=September 30, 2001 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".<ref name="CBS2">{{cite news| title=Ground Zero Forensic Work Ends| publisher=CBS News| date=February 23, 2005| url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/23/national/main675839.shtml| accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged [[Deutsche Bank Building]]. In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the [[Fresh Kills Landfill]], where seventy-two more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.<ref>{{cite news|last = Andrade |first = Mariano |title = Scientists still struggle to identify 9/11 remains |url=http://news.discovery.com/human/psychology/world-trade-center-remains-110826.htm |agency = Agence France Presse |date=August 25, 2011 |accessdate=September 5, 2011 |work=[[Discovery News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/remains-wtc-worker-ernest-james-40-id-ten-years-9-11-article-1.945620 |title=Remains of WTC worker Ernest James, 40, ID'd ten years after 9/11 |last=Lemre |first=Jonathan |work=New York Daily News |date=August 24, 2011 |accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref><ref name=DNAContinue>{{cite news | first = Bobby | last = Cuza | title = 9/11 A Decade Later: DNA Matching Efforts To Continue At WTC Site | date = June 11, 2011 | url = http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140920211012/http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech | archivedate = September 20, 2014 | publisher = [[NY1]] |accessdate=September 21, 2011}}</ref> The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum. In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.<ref name=DNAContinue /> On March 20, 2015, the 1,640th victim was identified. There are still 1,113 victims who have not been identified.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/20/us/9-11-remains-identified/index.html|title=Mom of 9/11 victim: Identified remains 'finally put everything to rest'|work=CNN|accessdate=March 20, 2015}}</ref>
+
Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/09/29/gen.america.under.attack/index.html |title=Source: Hijacking suspects linked to Afghanistan |publisher=CNN |date=September 30, 2001 |accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".<ref name="CBS2">{{cite news| title=Ground Zero Forensic Work Ends| publisher=CBS News| date=February 23, 2005| url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/02/23/national/main675839.shtml| accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged [[Deutsche Bank Building]]. In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the [[Fresh Kills Landfill]], where seventy-two more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.<ref>{{cite news|last = Andrade |first = Mariano |title = Scientists still struggle to identify 9/11 remains |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403064003/http://news.discovery.com/human/psychology/world-trade-center-remains-110826.htm |agency = Agence France Presse |date=August 25, 2011 |accessdate=September 5, 2011 |work=[[Discovery News]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/remains-wtc-worker-ernest-james-40-id-ten-years-9-11-article-1.945620 |title=Remains of WTC worker Ernest James, 40, ID'd ten years after 9/11 |last=Lemre |first=Jonathan |work=New York Daily News |date=August 24, 2011 |accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref><ref name=DNAContinue>{{cite news | first = Bobby | last = Cuza | title = 9/11 A Decade Later: DNA Matching Efforts To Continue At WTC Site | date = June 11, 2011 | url = http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140920211012/http://www.ny1.com/content/143516/9-11-a-decade-later--remains-from-wtc-tested-by-latest-dna-tech | archivedate = September 20, 2014 | publisher = [[NY1]] |accessdate=September 21, 2011}}</ref> The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum. In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.<ref name=DNAContinue /> On March 20, 2015, the 1,640th victim was identified. There are still 1,113 victims who have not been identified.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/20/us/9-11-remains-identified/index.html|title=Mom of 9/11 victim: Identified remains 'finally put everything to rest'|work=CNN|accessdate=March 20, 2015}}</ref>
   
 
===Damage===
 
===Damage===
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Along with the 110-floor [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|Twin Towers]], numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and [[St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="wtcstudy">{{cite web|url=http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |date=May 2002 |publisher=FEMA |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5spvzRCDS?url=http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |archivedate=September 18, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The North Tower, South Tower, the [[Marriott World Trade Center|Marriott Hotel (3&nbsp;WTC)]], and 7&nbsp;WTC were completely destroyed. The U.S. Customs House ([[6 World Trade Center]]), [[4 World Trade Center (1975–2001)|4 World Trade Center]], [[5 World Trade Center]], and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The [[Deutsche Bank Building]] on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75">Summers and Swan (2011), p. 75.</ref><ref name='130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero'>{{cite news | first = Matt | last = Chaban | title = 130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero |date=February 9, 2011 | url = http://www.commercialobserver.com/2011/02/130-liberty-finally-gone-from-ground-zero/ | work = [[The New York Observer]] |accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref> The two buildings of the [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] also suffered damage.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75" />
 
Along with the 110-floor [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|Twin Towers]], numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and [[St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church]].<ref name="wtcstudy">{{cite web|url=http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |date=May 2002 |publisher=FEMA |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5spvzRCDS?url=http://www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/wtcstudy.shtm |archivedate=September 18, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The North Tower, South Tower, the [[Marriott World Trade Center|Marriott Hotel (3&nbsp;WTC)]], and 7&nbsp;WTC were completely destroyed. The U.S. Customs House ([[6 World Trade Center]]), [[4 World Trade Center (1975–2001)|4 World Trade Center]], [[5 World Trade Center]], and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The [[Deutsche Bank Building]] on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75">Summers and Swan (2011), p. 75.</ref><ref name='130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero'>{{cite news | first = Matt | last = Chaban | title = 130 Liberty Finally Gone from Ground Zero |date=February 9, 2011 | url = http://www.commercialobserver.com/2011/02/130-liberty-finally-gone-from-ground-zero/ | work = [[The New York Observer]] |accessdate=April 10, 2012}}</ref> The two buildings of the [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] also suffered damage.<ref name="The Eleventh Day pp 75" />
   
The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was [[Deconstruction (building)|deconstructed]].<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study&nbsp;– Bankers Trust Building'', pp ??</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=The Deutsche Bank Building at 130 Liberty Street|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center| url=http://www.renewnyc.com/plan_des_dev/130Liberty/default.asp|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]'s Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks, and is being rebuilt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lower Manhattan&nbsp;– Fiterman Hall |publisher=LowerManhattan.info |date=July 1, 2007 |url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/fiterman_hall_39764.aspx |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5pvOUTcbk?url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/fiterman_hall_39764.aspx |archivedate=May 22, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Other neighboring buildings (including [[90 West Street, New York City|90 West Street]] and the [[Verizon Building]]) suffered major damage but have been restored.<ref name="nyconstruction">{{cite web|url=http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp |title=Verizon Building Restoration |publisher=New York Construction (McGraw Hill) |accessdate=September 2, 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5pvOUTccB?url=http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp | archivedate=May 22, 2010| deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] buildings, [[One Liberty Plaza]], the [[Millenium<!-- PLEASE NOTE that "Millenium" is the correct spelling here. --> Hilton]], and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study&nbsp;– Peripheral Buildings'', pp. ??</ref> Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.<ref name="wtcstudy" /><ref>{{cite web| last=Bloomfield| first=Larry| url=http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters| title=New York broadcasters rebuild| publisher=Broadcast Engineering| date=October 1, 2001| accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080604040210/http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters |archivedate=June 4, 2008}}</ref>
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The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was [[Deconstruction (building)|deconstructed]].<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study&nbsp;– Bankers Trust Building'', pp ??</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=The Deutsche Bank Building at 130 Liberty Street|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center| url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040809201432/http://www.renewnyc.com/plan_des_dev/130Liberty/default.asp|accessdate=September 2, 2011}}</ref> The [[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]'s Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks, and is being rebuilt.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lower Manhattan&nbsp;– Fiterman Hall |publisher=LowerManhattan.info |date=July 1, 2007 |url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/fiterman_hall_39764.aspx |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5pvOUTcbk?url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/fiterman_hall_39764.aspx |archivedate=May 22, 2010 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Other neighboring buildings (including [[90 West Street, New York City|90 West Street]] and the [[Verizon Building]]) suffered major damage but have been restored.<ref name="nyconstruction">{{cite web|url=http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp |title=Verizon Building Restoration |publisher=New York Construction (McGraw Hill) |accessdate=September 2, 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5pvOUTccB?url=http://newyork.construction.com/projects/TopProjects04/Verizon.asp | archivedate=May 22, 2010| deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Brookfield Place (New York City)|World Financial Center]] buildings, [[One Liberty Plaza]], the [[Millenium<!-- PLEASE NOTE that "Millenium" is the correct spelling here. --> Hilton]], and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.<ref>''World Trade Center Building Performance Study&nbsp;– Peripheral Buildings'', pp. ??</ref> Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.<ref name="wtcstudy" /><ref>{{cite web| last=Bloomfield| first=Larry| url=http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters| title=New York broadcasters rebuild| publisher=Broadcast Engineering| date=October 1, 2001| accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080604040210/http://sysdesignshowcase.broadcastengineering.com/ar/broadcasting_new_york_broadcasters |archivedate=June 4, 2008}}</ref>
   
 
The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.<ref>''The Pentagon Building Performance Report'', pp. ??</ref> As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.<ref>''Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77'', pp. ??</ref><ref name="fdr">''American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report'', pp. ??</ref> The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.<ref name="Pent17">Goldberg (2007), p. 17.</ref> Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building, breaking through {{convert|310|ft|m|0}} of the three outermost of the building's five rings.<ref name="Pent17" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Maclean |first=John N |title=America Under Attack: A chronicle of chaos and heroism at the Pentagon |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/29/AR2008052903149.html |date=June 1, 2008 |work = The Washington Post|accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
 
The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.<ref>''The Pentagon Building Performance Report'', pp. ??</ref> As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.<ref>''Flight Path Study – American Airlines Flight 77'', pp. ??</ref><ref name="fdr">''American Airlines Flight 77 FDR Report'', pp. ??</ref> The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.<ref name="Pent17">Goldberg (2007), p. 17.</ref> Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building, breaking through {{convert|310|ft|m|0}} of the three outermost of the building's five rings.<ref name="Pent17" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Maclean |first=John N |title=America Under Attack: A chronicle of chaos and heroism at the Pentagon |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/05/29/AR2008052903149.html |date=June 1, 2008 |work = The Washington Post|accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref>
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{{Main article|Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center}}
 
{{Main article|Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center}}
 
[[File:DN-SD-04-12744.JPEG|right|thumb|alt= An injured victim is being loaded into a paramedic van with the burning Pentagon in the background|An injured victim of the Pentagon attack is evacuated.]]
 
[[File:DN-SD-04-12744.JPEG|right|thumb|alt= An injured victim is being loaded into a paramedic van with the burning Pentagon in the background|An injured victim of the Pentagon attack is evacuated.]]
The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.<ref name="mckinsey-ems">''McKinsey Report'', "Emergency Medical Service response", pp. ??</ref><ref name="mckinsey-exec">''McKinsey Report'', "Executive Summary", pp. ??</ref><ref>''McKinsey Report'', Exhibit 7, "Fire Apparatus Deployment on September 11"</ref> The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel, and deployed its aviation unit. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.<ref name="mckinsey-ems" /><ref name="alavosius">Alavosius and Rodriquez (2005), pp. 666–680.</ref> As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.<ref name="alavosius" /><ref name="mckinsey-nypd">''McKinsey Report'', "NYPD", pp. ??</ref> With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.
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The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.<ref name="mckinsey-ems">''McKinsey Report'', "Emergency Medical Service response", pp. ??</ref><ref name="mckinsey-exec">''McKinsey Report'', "Executive Summary", pp.??</ref><ref>''McKinsey Report'', Exhibit 7, "Fire Apparatus Deployment on September 11"</ref> The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel, and deployed its aviation unit. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.<ref name="mckinsey-ems" /><ref name="alavosius">Alavosius and Rodriquez (2005), pp. 666–680.</ref> As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.<ref name="alavosius" /><ref name="mckinsey-nypd">''McKinsey Report'', "NYPD", pp. ??</ref> With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.
   
 
After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings; however, due to [[Radio communications during the September 11 attacks|technical difficulties]] with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. [[9-1-1]] dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.<ref name="mckinsey-exec" /> Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201081749/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/| archivedate=December 1, 2008| deadurl=yes| title=Ceremony closes 'Ground Zero' cleanup |date=May 30, 2002 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=November 24, 2013}}</ref>
 
After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings; however, due to [[Radio communications during the September 11 attacks|technical difficulties]] with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. [[9-1-1]] dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.<ref name="mckinsey-exec" /> Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201081749/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/05/30/rec.wtc.cleanup/| archivedate=December 1, 2008| deadurl=yes| title=Ceremony closes 'Ground Zero' cleanup |date=May 30, 2002 |publisher=CNN |accessdate=November 24, 2013}}</ref>
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For the first time in U.S. history, [[Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids|SCATANA]] was invoked,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.judicialwatch.org/archive/2007/Saudi%20Docs%202.pdf|format=PDF|title = NOTAMs/Flight Restrictions in Effect on 9/13/01|author = Flight Data Center|publisher = Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=April 13, 2007|page = 15ff}}</ref> thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.<ref name="Commission">{{cite web| title = Wartime| work = National Commission on Terrorists Attacks upon the United States| publisher = U.S. Congress| url = http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch10.htm| accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] closed American airspace to all international flights, causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched [[Operation Yellow Ribbon]] to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.<ref name="canadaflights">{{cite press release| title=Actions taken following September 11 terrorist attacks |date=December 11, 2001 |publisher=[[Transport Canada]] |url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415131425/http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |archivedate=April 15, 2002}}</ref>
 
For the first time in U.S. history, [[Security Control of Air Traffic and Air Navigation Aids|SCATANA]] was invoked,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.judicialwatch.org/archive/2007/Saudi%20Docs%202.pdf|format=PDF|title = NOTAMs/Flight Restrictions in Effect on 9/13/01|author = Flight Data Center|publisher = Federal Bureau of Investigation |date=April 13, 2007|page = 15ff}}</ref> thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.<ref name="Commission">{{cite web| title = Wartime| work = National Commission on Terrorists Attacks upon the United States| publisher = U.S. Congress| url = http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch10.htm| accessdate=September 3, 2011}}</ref> The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] closed American airspace to all international flights, causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched [[Operation Yellow Ribbon]] to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.<ref name="canadaflights">{{cite press release| title=Actions taken following September 11 terrorist attacks |date=December 11, 2001 |publisher=[[Transport Canada]] |url=http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415131425/http://www.tc.gc.ca/mediaroom/releases/nat/2001/01_h152e.htm |archivedate=April 15, 2002}}</ref>
   
The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stein |first=Howard F. |year=2003 |title=Days of Awe: September 11, 2001 and its Cultural Psychodynamics |journal=Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=187–199 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |location=Columbus, OH |doi=10.1353/psy.2003.0047}}</ref> Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence, traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asthma Rates Up Among Ground Zero Workers |agency=Associated Press |publisher=CBS News |date=Sep 10, 2009|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-204_162-3207507.html|accessdate=September 11, 2013}}</ref> Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Glynn| first=Simone A.| title=Effect of a National Disaster on Blood Supply and Safety: The September 11 Experience| url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/289/17/2246.long|year=2003| journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=289| issue=17| pmid=12734136| doi=10.1001/jama.289.17.2246| pages=2246–2253| last2=Busch| first2=MP| last3=Schreiber| first3=GB| last4=Murphy| first4=EL| last5=Wright| first5=DJ| last6=Tu| first6=Y| last7=Kleinman| first7=SH| last8=Nhlbi Reds Study| first8=Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Red Cross Woes |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html |date=December 19, 2001 |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |publisher=PBS |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905071729/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html |archivedate=September 5, 2011 }}</ref>
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The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stein |first=Howard F. |year=2003 |title=Days of Awe: September 11, 2001 and its Cultural Psychodynamics |journal=Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture and Society |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=187–199 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |location=Columbus, OH |doi=10.1353/psy.2003.0047}}</ref> Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence, traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asthma Rates Up Among Ground Zero Workers |agency=Associated Press |publisher=CBS News |date=September 10, 2009|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-204_162-3207507.html|accessdate=September 11, 2013}}</ref> Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Glynn| first=Simone A.| title=Effect of a National Disaster on Blood Supply and Safety: The September 11 Experience| url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/289/17/2246.long|year=2003| journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]|volume=289| issue=17| pmid=12734136| doi=10.1001/jama.289.17.2246| pages=2246–2253| last2=Busch| first2=MP| last3=Schreiber| first3=GB| last4=Murphy| first4=EL| last5=Wright| first5=DJ| last6=Tu| first6=Y| last7=Kleinman| first7=SH| last8=Nhlbi Reds Study| first8=Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Red Cross Woes |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html |date=December 19, 2001 |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |publisher=PBS |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905071729/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/business/july-dec01/redcross_12-19.html |archivedate=September 5, 2011 }}</ref>
   
 
The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Coates |first1 = S. |last2 = Schechter |first2 = D.| doi = 10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.006 |title = Preschoolers' traumatic stress post-9/11: Relational and developmental perspectives |journal = Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume = 27 |issue = 3 |pages = 473–489 |year = 2004 |pmid = 15325488}}</ref> Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks, and effects on surviving caregivers.<ref>Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9–13.</ref><ref>Coates SW, Rosenthal J, Schechter DS—Eds. (2003). September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds. New York: Taylor and Francis, Inc.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Klein |first1 = T. P. |last2 = Devoe |first2 = E. R. |last3 = Miranda-Julian |first3 = C. |last4 = Linas |first4 = K. |title = Young children's responses to September 11th: The New York City experience |doi = 10.1002/imhj.20200 |journal = Infant Mental Health Journal |volume = 30 |page = 1 |year = 2009}}</ref>
 
The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Coates |first1 = S. |last2 = Schechter |first2 = D.| doi = 10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.006 |title = Preschoolers' traumatic stress post-9/11: Relational and developmental perspectives |journal = Psychiatric Clinics of North America |volume = 27 |issue = 3 |pages = 473–489 |year = 2004 |pmid = 15325488}}</ref> Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks, and effects on surviving caregivers.<ref>Schechter DS, Coates SW, First E (2002). Observations of acute reactions of young children and their families to the World Trade Center attacks. Journal of ZERO-TO-THREE: National Center for Infants, Toddlers, and Families, 22(3), 9–13.</ref><ref>Coates SW, Rosenthal J, Schechter DS—Eds. (2003). September 11: Trauma and Human Bonds. New York: Taylor and Francis, Inc.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Klein |first1 = T. P. |last2 = Devoe |first2 = E. R. |last3 = Miranda-Julian |first3 = C. |last4 = Linas |first4 = K. |title = Young children's responses to September 11th: The New York City experience |doi = 10.1002/imhj.20200 |journal = Infant Mental Health Journal |volume = 30 |page = 1 |year = 2009}}</ref>
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}} Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/Presidential-Approval-Ratings-George-Bush.aspx |title=Presidential Approval Ratings&nbsp;– George W. Bush |publisher=Gallup |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402045152/http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/presidential-approval-ratings-george-bush.aspx |archivedate=April 2, 2009 |df= }}</ref> On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. [[Mayor of New York City|New York City mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]]'s [[Rudy Giuliani during the September 11 attacks|highly visible role]] won him high praise in New York and nationally.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pooley|first=Eric|title=Mayor of the World |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2020227_2020306_2022358,00.html |work=Person of the Year 2001 |publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=September 4, 2011|date=December 31, 2001}}</ref>
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Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/Presidential-Approval-Ratings-George-Bush.aspx |title=Presidential Approval Ratings&nbsp;– George W. Bush |publisher=Gallup |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090402045152/http://www.gallup.com/poll/116500/presidential-approval-ratings-george-bush.aspx |archivedate=April 2, 2009 |df= }}</ref> On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. [[Mayor of New York City|New York City mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]]'s [[Rudy Giuliani during the September 11 attacks|highly visible role]] won him high praise in New York and nationally.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pooley|first=Eric|title=Mayor of the World |url=http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2020227_2020306_2022358,00.html |work=Person of the Year 2001 |publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=September 4, 2011|date=December 31, 2001}}</ref>
 
   
 
Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks, with the task of providing [[Financial assistance following the September 11 attacks|financial assistance]] to the [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|survivors of the attacks]] and to the families of victims. By the deadline for victim's compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.<ref>{{cite news|last = Barrett|first = Devlin |title = 9/11 Fund Deadline Passes |publisher =CBS News |date=December 23, 2003 | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/16/national/main593715.shtml |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
 
Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks, with the task of providing [[Financial assistance following the September 11 attacks|financial assistance]] to the [[Casualties of the September 11 attacks|survivors of the attacks]] and to the families of victims. By the deadline for victim's compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.<ref>{{cite news|last = Barrett|first = Devlin |title = 9/11 Fund Deadline Passes |publisher =CBS News |date=December 23, 2003 | url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/16/national/main593715.shtml |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
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[[File:September 14 2001 Ground Zero 02.jpg|thumb|upright|A fireman stands behind rubble.]]
 
[[File:September 14 2001 Ground Zero 02.jpg|thumb|upright|A fireman stands behind rubble.]]
   
Shortly after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect."<ref>{{cite news|first=Samuel G.|last=Freedman|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/08/us/on-religion-six-days-after-9-11-another-anniversary-worth-honoring.html|title=Six Days After 9/11, Another Anniversary Worth Honoring|accessdate=March 12, 2015|date=September 7, 2012|work=The New York Times}}</ref>
+
Shortly after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect."<ref>{{cite news|first=Samuel G.|last=Freedman|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/08/us/on-religion-six-days-after-9-11-another-anniversary-worth-honoring.html|title=Six Days After 9/11, Another Anniversary Worth Honoring|accessdate=March 12, 2015|date=September 7, 2012|work=The New York Times}}</ref> However, numerous incidents of [[harassment]] and [[hate crime]]s against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html|title=New York City Commission on Human Rights|publisher=Nyc.gov |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203071912/http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html |archivedate=February 3, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/post9-11-us-policies-created-atmosphere-of-fear-for-south-asians/836936 |title=Post-9/11, US policies created atmosphere of fear for South Asians|work=The Indian Express|date=August 25, 2011 |accessdate=October 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Hate">{{cite news|title=Hate crime reports up in wake of terrorist attacks |publisher=CNN |date=September 17, 2001|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127025019/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes/ |archivedate=November 27, 2005 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> [[Sikh]]s were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear [[turban]]s, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on people, including one murder: [[Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi|Balbir Singh Sodhi]], a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in [[Mesa, Arizona]].<ref name="Hate" />
However, numerous incidents of [[harassment]] and [[hate crime]]s against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html|title=New York City Commission on Human Rights|publisher=Nyc.gov |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203071912/http://www.nyc.gov/html/cchr/html/report.html |archivedate=February 3, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/post9-11-us-policies-created-atmosphere-of-fear-for-south-asians/836936 |title=Post-9/11, US policies created atmosphere of fear for South Asians|work=The Indian Express|date=August 25, 2011 |accessdate=October 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Hate">{{cite news|title=Hate crime reports up in wake of terrorist attacks |publisher=CNN |date=September 17, 2001|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051127025019/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/09/16/gen.hate.crimes/ |archivedate=November 27, 2005 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> [[Sikh]]s were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear [[turban]]s, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on people, including one murder: [[Murder of Balbir Singh Sodhi|Balbir Singh Sodhi]], a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in [[Mesa, Arizona]].<ref name="Hate" />
 
   
According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0,1370,-1019-12850,00.html |title=Many minority groups were victims of hate crimes after 9-11 |date=October 9, 2003 |publisher=[[Ball State University]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211050839/http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0%2C1370%2C-1019-12850%2C00.html |archivedate=December 11, 2008 |accessdate=May 29, 2014 |df= }}</ref> A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together, documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saalt.org/attachments/1/American%20Backlash%20report.pdf|title=American Backlash: Terrorist Bring War Home in More Ways Than One |year=2003 |publisher=SAALT |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203140832/http://static.911digitalarchive.org/REPOSITORY/OTHER_OBJECTS/6object.pdf |archivedate=December 3, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=645 racial incidents reported in week after September 11|first=Jeet|last=Thayil|newspaper=India Abroad |date=October 12, 2001 |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79281024.html}}</ref>
+
According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0,1370,-1019-12850,00.html |title=Many minority groups were victims of hate crimes after 9-11 |date=October 9, 2003 |publisher=[[Ball State University]] |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211050839/http://www.bsu.edu/news/article/0%2C1370%2C-1019-12850%2C00.html |archivedate=December 11, 2008 |accessdate=May 29, 2014 |df= }}</ref> A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together, documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saalt.org/attachments/1/American%20Backlash%20report.pdf|title=American Backlash: Terrorist Bring War Home in More Ways Than One |year=2003 |publisher=SAALT |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203140832/http://static.911digitalarchive.org/REPOSITORY/OTHER_OBJECTS/6object.pdf |archivedate=December 3, 2010 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=645 racial incidents reported in week after September 11|first=Jeet|last=Thayil|newspaper=India Abroad |date=October 12, 2001 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511211812/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-79281024.html}}</ref>
   
 
====Muslim American response====
 
====Muslim American response====
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===International reactions===
 
===International reactions===
 
{{Main article|Reactions to the September 11 attacks}} The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hertzberg |first=Hendrik |title=Lost love |work=The New Yorker |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg |date=September 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5sMTJrWkY?url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg | archivedate=August 30, 2010| deadurl=no}}</ref> Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".<ref>{{cite news|title=Attacks draw mixed response in Mideast |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813060324/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html |archivedate=August 13, 2007 |publisher=CNN |date=September 12, 2001 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=May 29, 2014 |df= }}</ref> The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Summers |first1=Anthony |author2=Swan, Robbyn|title=The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama bin Laden|year=2011|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6659-9|page=403}}</ref><ref name="The Kingdom and the Towers">{{cite web|title=The Kingdom and the Towers |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2011/08/9-11-2011-201108|publisher=Vanity Fair|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Although [[Palestinian Authority]] (PA) president [[Yasser Arafat]] also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations in the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], and [[East Jerusalem]]—with a celebration involving 3,000 Palestinians dancing in the streets and handing out candy being filmed in [[Nablus]] despite alleged PA warnings that it could not guarantee the safety of journalists attempting to document the event. Similar demonstrations took place in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], where there is a large population of Palestinian descent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Radler|first=Melissa|url=http://www.jpost.com/Editions/2001/09/13/News/News.34751.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913052346/http://www.jpost.com/Editions/2001/09/13/News/News.34751.html|archivedate=2001-09-13|title=Jewish leaders stress Palestinians' support of attacks|work=Jerusalem Post|date=2001-09-13|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On PA threats, see {{cite web|last=Donaldson-Evans|first=Catherine|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2001/09/13/palestinian-officials-quash-pictures-arab-celebrations.html|title=Palestinian Officials Quash Pictures of Arab Celebrations|work=Fox News|date=2001-09-13|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On Jordan, see {{cite web|last=Logan|first=Joseph|url=http://us.news2.yimg.com/f/42/31/7m/dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010911/ts/crash_tradecenter_arabs_dc.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011004062650/http://us.news2.yimg.com/f/42/31/7m/dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010911/ts/crash_tradecenter_arabs_dc.html|archivedate=2001-10-04|title=Arab Street Cheers, Govts Lament U.S. Attacks|work=Reuters|date=2001-09-11|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On false claims that the footage was taken from earlier Palestinian celebrations during the [[Gulf War]], see {{cite web|last=Mikkelson|first=David|url=http://www.snopes.com/rumors/cnn.asp|title=False Footaging|work=Snopes|date=2008-03-09|accessdate=2016-09-04|quote=The video used on ''CNN'' was in fact shot on Tuesday, 11 September 2001, in East Jerusalem by a ''Reuters'' TV crew, not during the Persian Gulf conflict of 1990-91—a fact proved by its inclusion of comments from a Palestinian praising Osama Bin Laden (whose name was unlikely to have come up ten years earlier in connection with the invasion and liberation of Kuwait) as well as the appearance in the video of post-1991 automobiles. The person who made the claim quoted above has since recanted.&nbsp;... The footage was real. It's a shame, in fact, that its provenance was doubted because the lives of journalists who have attempted to capture similar acts on video have been threatened. That this tape made it out at all is a miracle.}}</ref> As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1551868.stm |title=UK &#124; Muslim community targets racial tension |publisher=BBC News |date=September 19, 2001 |accessdate=April 11, 2012}}</ref>
{{Main article|Reactions to the September 11 attacks}}
 
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hertzberg |first=Hendrik |title=Lost love |work=The New Yorker |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg |date=September 11, 2006 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5sMTJrWkY?url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/09/11/060911ta_talk_hertzberg | archivedate=August 30, 2010| deadurl=no}}</ref> Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".<ref>{{cite news|title=Attacks draw mixed response in Mideast |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813060324/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/09/12/mideast.reaction/index.html |archivedate=August 13, 2007 |publisher=CNN |date=September 12, 2001 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=May 29, 2014 |df= }}</ref> The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Summers |first1=Anthony |author2=Swan, Robbyn|title=The Eleventh Day: The Full Story of 9/11 and Osama bin Laden|year=2011|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6659-9|page=403}}</ref><ref name="The Kingdom and the Towers">{{cite web|title=The Kingdom and the Towers |url=http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2011/08/9-11-2011-201108|publisher=Vanity Fair|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Although [[Palestinian Authority]] (PA) president [[Yasser Arafat]] also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations in the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], and [[East Jerusalem]]—with a celebration involving 3,000 Palestinians dancing in the streets and handing out candy being filmed in [[Nablus]] despite alleged PA warnings that it could not guarantee the safety of journalists attempting to document the event. Similar demonstrations took place in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], where there is a large population of Palestinian descent.<ref>{{cite web|last=Radler|first=Melissa|url=http://www.jpost.com/Editions/2001/09/13/News/News.34751.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913052346/http://www.jpost.com/Editions/2001/09/13/News/News.34751.html|archivedate=2001-09-13|title=Jewish leaders stress Palestinians' support of attacks|work=Jerusalem Post|date=2001-09-13|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On PA threats, see {{cite web|last=Donaldson-Evans|first=Catherine|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2001/09/13/palestinian-officials-quash-pictures-arab-celebrations.html|title=Palestinian Officials Quash Pictures of Arab Celebrations|work=Fox News|date=2001-09-13|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On Jordan, see {{cite web|last=Logan|first=Joseph|url=http://us.news2.yimg.com/f/42/31/7m/dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010911/ts/crash_tradecenter_arabs_dc.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20011004062650/http://us.news2.yimg.com/f/42/31/7m/dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010911/ts/crash_tradecenter_arabs_dc.html|archivedate=2001-10-04|title=Arab Street Cheers, Govts Lament U.S. Attacks|work=Reuters|date=2001-09-11|accessdate=2016-09-04}} On false claims that the footage was taken from earlier Palestinian celebrations during the [[Gulf War]], see {{cite web|last=Mikkelson|first=David|url=http://www.snopes.com/rumors/cnn.asp|title=False Footaging|work=Snopes|date=2008-03-09|accessdate=2016-09-04|quote=The video used on ''CNN'' was in fact shot on Tuesday, 11 September 2001, in East Jerusalem by a ''Reuters'' TV crew, not during the Persian Gulf conflict of 1990-91—a fact proved by its inclusion of comments from a Palestinian praising Osama Bin Laden (whose name was unlikely to have come up ten years earlier in connection with the invasion and liberation of Kuwait) as well as the appearance in the video of post-1991 automobiles. The person who made the claim quoted above has since recanted.&nbsp;... The footage was real. It's a shame, in fact, that its provenance was doubted because the lives of journalists who have attempted to capture similar acts on video have been threatened. That this tape made it out at all is a miracle.}}</ref> As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/1551868.stm |title=UK &#124; Muslim community targets racial tension |publisher=BBC News |date=September 19, 2001 |accessdate=April 11, 2012}}</ref>
 
   
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368]] condemned the attacks, and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Charter]].<ref name="SecCounc">{{cite web|title=Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States|publisher=United Nations |date=September 12, 2001 |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm|accessdate=September 11, 2006 |quote=The Security Council today, following what it called yesterday's "horrifying terrorist attacks" in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, unequivocally condemned those acts, and expressed its deepest sympathy and condolences to the victims and their families and to the people and Government of the United States.}}</ref> Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hamilton |first=Stuart |title=September 11, the Internet, and the effects on information provision in Libraries |work=68th IFLA Council and Conference |date=August 24, 2002 |url=http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/156-079e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html |title=G8 counter-terrorism cooperation since September 11 backgrounder |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |publisher=Site Internet du Sommet du G8 d'Evian |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927084019/http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html |archivedate=September 27, 2011 }}</ref> Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.<ref>{{cite web|last = Walsh |first = Courtney C |title = Italian police explore Al Qaeda links in cyanide plot |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=March 7, 2002 |url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0307/p07s02-woeu.html |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = SE Asia unites to smash militant cells |publisher = CNN |date=May 8, 2002 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/05/07/seasia.terror.pact/ |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
+
[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368]] condemned the attacks, and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their [[Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter|Charter]].<ref name="SecCounc">{{cite web|title=Security Council Condemns, 'In Strongest Terms', Terrorist Attacks on the United States|publisher=United Nations |date=September 12, 2001 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010913053431/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2001/SC7143.doc.htm|accessdate=September 11, 2006 |quote=The Security Council today, following what it called yesterday's "horrifying terrorist attacks" in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania, unequivocally condemned those acts, and expressed its deepest sympathy and condolences to the victims and their families and to the people and Government of the United States.}}</ref> Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hamilton |first=Stuart |title=September 11, the Internet, and the effects on information provision in Libraries |work=68th IFLA Council and Conference |date=August 24, 2002 |url=http://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla68/papers/156-079e.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html |title=G8 counter-terrorism cooperation since September 11 backgrounder |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |publisher=Site Internet du Sommet du G8 d'Evian |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927084019/http://www.g8.fr/evian/english/navigation/g8_documents/archives_from_previous_summits/kananaskis_summit_-_2002/g8_counter-terrorism_cooperation_since_september_11th_backgrounder.html |archivedate=September 27, 2011 }}</ref> Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.<ref>{{cite web|last = Walsh |first = Courtney C |title = Italian police explore Al Qaeda links in cyanide plot |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=March 7, 2002 |url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0307/p07s02-woeu.html |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = SE Asia unites to smash militant cells |publisher = CNN |date=May 8, 2002 |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/05/07/seasia.terror.pact/ |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
 
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Blair's statement in full|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/1538551.stm|publisher=BBC|date=September 11, 2001}}</ref> A few days later, Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress, nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."<ref>{{cite web|title=President Declares "Freedom at War with Fear" |url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |publisher=The White House |accessdate=August 25, 2016 |date=September 20, 2001 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225062850/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |archivedate=February 25, 2008 |df= }}</ref> Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40,000 miles (60,000&nbsp;km).<ref>{{cite news|title=Tony Blair's allegiance to George Bush laid bare|url=http://www.standard.co.uk/news/tony-blairs-corrosive-allegiance-to-george-bush-laid-bare-for-the-first-time-6668892.html|publisher=Evening Standard|date=October 27, 2007}}</ref>
 
British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Blair's statement in full|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/1538551.stm|publisher=BBC|date=September 11, 2001}}</ref> A few days later, Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress, nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."<ref>{{cite web|title=President Declares "Freedom at War with Fear" |url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |publisher=The White House |accessdate=August 25, 2016 |date=September 20, 2001 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225062850/http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010920-8.html |archivedate=February 25, 2008 |df= }}</ref> Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40,000 miles (60,000&nbsp;km).<ref>{{cite news|title=Tony Blair's allegiance to George Bush laid bare|url=http://www.standard.co.uk/news/tony-blairs-corrosive-allegiance-to-george-bush-laid-bare-for-the-first-time-6668892.html|publisher=Evening Standard|date=October 27, 2007}}</ref>
Line 347: Line 341:
 
On September 14, 2001, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]]. Still in effect, it grants the [[U.S. President|President]] the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks, or who harbored said persons or groups.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ40/pdf/PLAW-107publ40.pdf|title = PLAW-107publ40.pdf|date = September 18, 2001|accessdate = July 4, 2015|website = U.S. Government Publishing Office|publisher = 107th Congress}}</ref>
 
On September 14, 2001, the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists]]. Still in effect, it grants the [[U.S. President|President]] the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks, or who harbored said persons or groups.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-107publ40/pdf/PLAW-107publ40.pdf|title = PLAW-107publ40.pdf|date = September 18, 2001|accessdate = July 4, 2015|website = U.S. Government Publishing Office|publisher = 107th Congress}}</ref>
   
On October 7, 2001, the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)|War in Afghanistan]] began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting [[Taliban]] and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the [[Special Forces]].<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/enduring-freedom-ops.htm|title = Operation Enduring Freedom - Operations|date = 2008|work = GlobalSecurity.org|access-date = July 5, 2015|via = }}</ref> This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan with the [[Fall of Kandahar]] on December 7, 2001, by U.S. led [[International Security Assistance Force|coalition forces]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl32758.pdf|title = U.S. Military Operations in the Global War on Terrorism: Afghanistan, Africa, the Philippines, and Colombia|date = |accessdate = July 5, 2015|website = The Air University|publisher = }}</ref> Conflict in Afghanistan between the [[Taliban insurgency]] and the Afghan forces backed by [[Resolute Support Mission|NATO Resolute Support Mission]] is ongoing. The [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]], among other nations with their own internal conflicts with [[Islamic terrorism]], also increased their military readiness.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kuppuswamy|first=C.S. |title = Terrorism in Indonesia : Role of the Religious Organisation |publisher = South Asia Analysis Group |date=November 2, 2005 |url = http://www.saag.org/%5Cpapers16%5Cpaper1596.html |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032357/http://www.saag.org/papers16/paper1596.html |archivedate=June 11, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Banlaoi |first=Rommel |contribution=Radical Muslim Terrorism in the Philippines |year=2006 |title=Handbook on Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia |editor-last=Tan |editor-first=Andrew |place=London |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing}}</ref>
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On October 7, 2001, the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)|War in Afghanistan]] began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting [[Taliban]] and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the [[Special Forces]].<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/enduring-freedom-ops.htm|title = Operation Enduring Freedom - Operations|date = 2008|work = GlobalSecurity.org|access-date = July 5, 2015|via = }}</ref> This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan with the [[Fall of Kandahar]] on December 7, 2001, by U.S. led [[International Security Assistance Force|coalition forces]].<ref>{{cite web|url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111010153416/http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl32758.pdf|title = U.S. Military Operations in the Global War on Terrorism: Afghanistan, Africa, the Philippines, and Colombia|date = |accessdate = July 5, 2015|website = The Air University|publisher = }}</ref> Conflict in Afghanistan between the [[Taliban insurgency]] and the Afghan forces backed by [[Resolute Support Mission|NATO Resolute Support Mission]] is ongoing. The [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]], among other nations with their own internal conflicts with [[Islamic terrorism]], also increased their military readiness.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kuppuswamy|first=C.S. |title = Terrorism in Indonesia : Role of the Religious Organisation |publisher = South Asia Analysis Group |date=November 2, 2005 |url = http://www.saag.org/%5Cpapers16%5Cpaper1596.html |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070611032357/http://www.saag.org/papers16/paper1596.html |archivedate=June 11, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Banlaoi |first=Rommel |contribution=Radical Muslim Terrorism in the Philippines |year=2006 |title=Handbook on Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia |editor-last=Tan |editor-first=Andrew |place=London |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing}}</ref>
   
 
The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Taliban regime]] which had had conflicts with the government of Iran.<ref name=":0" /> Iran's [[Quds Force]] helped US forces and Afghan rebels in the [[2001 uprising in Herat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-09-iran-taliban_x.htm|title=USATODAY.com - Iran helped overthrow Taliban, candidate says|work=usatoday.com|accessdate=January 12, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spongobongo.com/her9940.htm|title=Iranian Special Forces Reportedly Fight Alongside US in Battle for Herat|work=spongobongo.com|accessdate=January 12, 2017}}</ref>
 
The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|Taliban regime]] which had had conflicts with the government of Iran.<ref name=":0" /> Iran's [[Quds Force]] helped US forces and Afghan rebels in the [[2001 uprising in Herat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-09-iran-taliban_x.htm|title=USATODAY.com - Iran helped overthrow Taliban, candidate says|work=usatoday.com|accessdate=January 12, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spongobongo.com/her9940.htm|title=Iranian Special Forces Reportedly Fight Alongside US in Battle for Herat|work=spongobongo.com|accessdate=January 12, 2017}}</ref>
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Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers.<ref>{{cite news| first=Anita |last=Gates |title=Buildings Rise from Rubble while Health Crumbles |work=The New York Times |date=September 11, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/11/arts/television/11dust.html?ref=nyregionspecial3 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2006/09/05/nyregion/20060905_HEALTH_GRAPHIC.html |title=What was Found in the Dust |work=New York Times |date=September 5, 2006|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to [[Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks|fatal or debilitating illnesses]] among people who were at ground zero.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news|title= New York: 9/11 toxins caused death|publisher=CNN| date=May 24, 2007|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070618154824/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html |archivedate=June 18, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/13/nyregion/13symptoms.html| title=Tracing Lung Ailments That Rose With 9/11 Dust| last=DePalma| first=Anthony| date=May 13, 2006|work=The New York Times| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The Bush administration ordered the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.<ref>{{cite news|last = Heilprin| first = John| title = White House edited EPA's 9/11 reports| publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer| date=June 23, 2003| url=http://www.seattlepi.com/default/article/White-House-edited-EPA-s-9-11-reports-1122465.php| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
 
Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers.<ref>{{cite news| first=Anita |last=Gates |title=Buildings Rise from Rubble while Health Crumbles |work=The New York Times |date=September 11, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/11/arts/television/11dust.html?ref=nyregionspecial3 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2006/09/05/nyregion/20060905_HEALTH_GRAPHIC.html |title=What was Found in the Dust |work=New York Times |date=September 5, 2006|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to [[Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks|fatal or debilitating illnesses]] among people who were at ground zero.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news|title= New York: 9/11 toxins caused death|publisher=CNN| date=May 24, 2007|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070618154824/http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/05/24/wtc.dust/index.html |archivedate=June 18, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/13/nyregion/13symptoms.html| title=Tracing Lung Ailments That Rose With 9/11 Dust| last=DePalma| first=Anthony| date=May 13, 2006|work=The New York Times| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The Bush administration ordered the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.<ref>{{cite news|last = Heilprin| first = John| title = White House edited EPA's 9/11 reports| publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer| date=June 23, 2003| url=http://www.seattlepi.com/default/article/White-House-edited-EPA-s-9-11-reports-1122465.php| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Updated Ground Zero Report Examines Failure of Government to Protect Citizens| publisher=Sierra Club| year=2006| url=http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611191219/http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/| archivedate=June 11, 2010| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.<ref>{{cite news| last=Smith| first=Stephen| url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/28/national/main4049362.shtml| title=9/11 "Wall Of Heroes" To Include Sick Cops| publisher=CBS News| date=April 28, 2008 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14738140|title=Toxic dust legacy of 9/11 plagues thousands of people|publisher=BBC News|first=David|last=Shukman|date=September 1, 2011|accessdate=September 11, 2011}}</ref> There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse, and were living or working nearby.<ref>{{cite web| title = CCCEH Study of the Effects of 9/11 on Pregnant Women and Newborns| work = World Trade Center Pregnancy Study| publisher = Columbia University| year= 2006| url =http://www.familiesofseptember11.org/docs/CCCEH%20Study%20Intro.pdf|accessdate=September 4, 2011|format=PDF}}</ref> A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.<ref>{{cite news|last=Grady|first=Denise|title=Lung Function of 9/11 Rescuers Fell, Study Finds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/08/nyregion/08lung.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011|newspaper=New York Times|date=April 7, 2010}}</ref>
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Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Updated Ground Zero Report Examines Failure of Government to Protect Citizens| publisher=Sierra Club| year=2006| url=http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611191219/http://www.sierraclub.org/groundzero/| archivedate=June 11, 2010| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.<ref>{{cite news| last=Smith| first=Stephen| url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/28/national/main4049362.shtml| title=9/11 "Wall Of Heroes" To Include Sick Cops| publisher=CBS News| date=April 28, 2008 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14738140|title=Toxic dust legacy of 9/11 plagues thousands of people|publisher=BBC News|first=David|last=Shukman|date=September 1, 2011|accessdate=September 11, 2011}}</ref> There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse, and were living or working nearby.<ref>{{cite web| title = CCCEH Study of the Effects of 9/11 on Pregnant Women and Newborns| work = World Trade Center Pregnancy Study| publisher = Columbia University| year= 2006| url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080422004533/http://www.familiesofseptember11.org/docs/CCCEH%20Study%20Intro.pdf|accessdate=September 4, 2011|format=PDF}}</ref> A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.<ref>{{cite news|last=Grady|first=Denise|title=Lung Function of 9/11 Rescuers Fell, Study Finds|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/08/nyregion/08lung.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011|newspaper=New York Times|date=April 7, 2010}}</ref>
   
 
Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.<ref>{{cite news| first=Anthony |last=DePalma |title=Many Ground Zero Workers Gain Chance at Lawsuits |work=The New York Times |date=October 18, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/18toxic.html?ref=nyregion |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.<ref>{{cite news|first=Larry |last=Neumeister |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/n/a/2006/02/02/national/a142556S81.DTL |title=Judge Slams Ex-EPA Chief Over Sept. 11 |agency=Associated Press |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=February 2, 2006 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524084609/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F02%2F02%2Fnational%2Fa142556S81.DTL |archivedate=May 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater [[Wall Street]] area.<ref>{{cite news| last=Smith| first=Ben| title=Rudy's black cloud. WTC health risks may hurt Prez bid| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/rudy-black-cloud-wtc-health-risks-hurt-prez-bid-article-1.618126| publisher=Daily News (New York)| date=September 18, 2006 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
 
Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.<ref>{{cite news| first=Anthony |last=DePalma |title=Many Ground Zero Workers Gain Chance at Lawsuits |work=The New York Times |date=October 18, 2006 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/18/nyregion/nyregionspecial3/18toxic.html?ref=nyregion |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.<ref>{{cite news|first=Larry |last=Neumeister |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/n/a/2006/02/02/national/a142556S81.DTL |title=Judge Slams Ex-EPA Chief Over Sept. 11 |agency=Associated Press |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=February 2, 2006 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524084609/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2006%2F02%2F02%2Fnational%2Fa142556S81.DTL |archivedate=May 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater [[Wall Street]] area.<ref>{{cite news| last=Smith| first=Ben| title=Rudy's black cloud. WTC health risks may hurt Prez bid| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/rudy-black-cloud-wtc-health-risks-hurt-prez-bid-article-1.618126| publisher=Daily News (New York)| date=September 18, 2006 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref>
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In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8&nbsp;billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolfman |first1=Michael L. |author2=Wasser, Solidelle F. |journal=Monthly Labor Review |volume=127 |year=2004 |title=9/11 and the New York City Economy}}</ref> The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3&nbsp;billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2&nbsp;billion in immediate assistance to the [[Government of New York City]] in September 2001, and $10.5&nbsp;billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.<ref name="crs-5">{{cite web|last=Makinen|first=Gail |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31617.pdf |title=The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment |page=5 |date=September 27, 2002 |work=Congressional Research Service |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref>
 
In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8&nbsp;billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolfman |first1=Michael L. |author2=Wasser, Solidelle F. |journal=Monthly Labor Review |volume=127 |year=2004 |title=9/11 and the New York City Economy}}</ref> The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3&nbsp;billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2&nbsp;billion in immediate assistance to the [[Government of New York City]] in September 2001, and $10.5&nbsp;billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.<ref name="crs-5">{{cite web|last=Makinen|first=Gail |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL31617.pdf |title=The Economic Effects of 9/11: A Retrospective Assessment |page=5 |date=September 27, 2002 |work=Congressional Research Service |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |format=PDF}}</ref>
   
Also hurt were small businesses in [[Lower Manhattan]] near the World Trade Center, 18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced, resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by [[Small Business Administration]] loans, federal government Community Development Block Grants, and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.<ref name="crs-5" /> Some {{convert|31900000|sqft|m2}} of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.<ref>{{cite web| last=Hensell| first=Lesley| title=Tough Times Loom For Manhattan Commercial Market| url=http://realtytimes.com/rtpages/20011214_downtown.htm| publisher=Realty Times| date=December 14, 2001| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.<ref>{{cite web| last = Parrott| first = James| title = The Employment Impact of the September 11 World Trade Center Attacks: Updated Estimates based on the Benchmarked Employment Data| publisher = The Fiscal Policy Institute| date=March 8, 2002| url = http://www.fiscalpolicy.org/Employment%20Impact%20of%20September%2011_Update.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Studies of the economic effects of 9/11 show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Fuerst| first = Franz| title = Exogenous Shocks and Real Estate Rental Markets: An Event Study of the 9/11 Attacks and their Impact on the New York Office Market|publisher = Russell Sage Foundation|date=September 7, 2005| ssrn = 800006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Russell |first=James S. |title=Do skyscrapers still make sense? Revived downtowns and new business models spur tall-building innovation |publisher=Architectural Record |date=November 7, 2004 |url=http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808062854/http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |archivedate=August 8, 2011 }}</ref>
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Also hurt were small businesses in [[Lower Manhattan]] near the World Trade Center, 18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced, resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by [[Small Business Administration]] loans, federal government Community Development Block Grants, and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.<ref name="crs-5" /> Some {{convert|31900000|sqft|m2}} of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.<ref>{{cite web| last=Hensell| first=Lesley| title=Tough Times Loom For Manhattan Commercial Market| url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506224622/http://realtytimes.com/rtpages/20011214_downtown.htm| publisher=Realty Times| date=December 14, 2001| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.<ref>{{cite web| last = Parrott| first = James| title = The Employment Impact of the September 11 World Trade Center Attacks: Updated Estimates based on the Benchmarked Employment Data| publisher = The Fiscal Policy Institute| date=March 8, 2002| url = https://web.archive.org/web/20021123101532/http://www.fiscalpolicy.org/Employment%20Impact%20of%20September%2011_Update.pdf| format = PDF| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Studies of the economic effects of 9/11 show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Fuerst| first = Franz| title = Exogenous Shocks and Real Estate Rental Markets: An Event Study of the 9/11 Attacks and their Impact on the New York Office Market|publisher = Russell Sage Foundation|date=September 7, 2005| ssrn = 800006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Russell |first=James S. |title=Do skyscrapers still make sense? Revived downtowns and new business models spur tall-building innovation |publisher=Architectural Record |date=November 7, 2004 |url=http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808062854/http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/2_Features/0411SkyscraperSense.asp |archivedate=August 8, 2011 }}</ref>
   
North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling [[Airline|U.S. airline industry]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhadra |first1=Dipasis |author2=Texter, Pamela |title=Airline Networks: An Econometric Framework to Analyze Domestic U.S. Air Travel| publisher=[[United States Department of Transportation]]| year=2004| url=http://www.bts.gov/publications/journal_of_transportation_and_statistics/volume_07_number_01/html/paper_06/| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
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North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling [[Airline|U.S. airline industry]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bhadra |first1=Dipasis |author2=Texter, Pamela |title=Airline Networks: An Econometric Framework to Analyze Domestic U.S. Air Travel| publisher=[[United States Department of Transportation]]| year=2004| url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050330035744/http://www.bts.gov/publications/journal_of_transportation_and_statistics/volume_07_number_01/html/paper_06/| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
 
[[File:Deficits vs. Debt Increases - 2008.png|thumb|U.S. [[United States federal budget|deficit]] and [[United States public debt|debt]] increases 2001–08]]
 
[[File:Deficits vs. Debt Increases - 2008.png|thumb|U.S. [[United States federal budget|deficit]] and [[United States public debt|debt]] increases 2001–08]]
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===Government policies toward terrorism===
 
===Government policies toward terrorism===
As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed [[Anti-terrorism legislation|legislation to combat terrorism]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Terrorism in the Asia-Pacific: Threat and Response |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |year=2004 |first=Andrew |last=Scobell |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=1078–9 |url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=788144 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120113041756/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=788144 |dead-url = yes |archive-date = January 13, 2012 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |doi=10.1017/S0021911804002463}}</ref> In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL32710.pdf |title=Germany's Role in Fighting Terrorism: Implications for U.S. Policy |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |last1=Miko |first1=Francis |author2=Froehlich, Christian |date=December 27, 2004 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> Canada passed the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act]], that nation's first anti-terrorism law.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-terrorism Act|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/cdnsecurity/|accessdate=November 12, 2013 |newspaper=CBC News|date=February 27, 2007}}</ref> The United Kingdom passed the [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] and the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Q and A: Anti-terrorism legislation | date = October 17, 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3197394.stm |work=BBC News |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Sam | last = Coates | title = After all the fuss dies down, what really happened | date = November 10, 2005 | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article588553.ece |work=The Times |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> New Zealand enacted the [[Terrorism Suppression Act 2002]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Terrorism Suppression Act 2002|url=http://legislation.co.nz/act/public/2002/0034/19.0/DLM2493700.html|publisher=New Zealand Government|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
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As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed [[Anti-terrorism legislation|legislation to combat terrorism]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Terrorism in the Asia-Pacific: Threat and Response |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |year=2004 |first=Andrew |last=Scobell |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=1078–9 |url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=788144 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120113041756/http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=788144 |dead-url = yes |archive-date = January 13, 2012 |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |doi=10.1017/S0021911804002463}}</ref> In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/crs/RL32710.pdf |title=Germany's Role in Fighting Terrorism: Implications for U.S. Policy |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |last1=Miko |first1=Francis |author2=Froehlich, Christian |date=December 27, 2004 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> Canada passed the [[Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act]], that nation's first anti-terrorism law.<ref>{{cite news|title=Anti-terrorism Act|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/cdnsecurity/|accessdate=November 12, 2013 |newspaper=CBC News|date=February 27, 2007}}</ref> The United Kingdom passed the [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001]] and the [[Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Q and A: Anti-terrorism legislation | date = October 17, 2003 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3197394.stm |work=BBC News |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | first = Sam | last = Coates | title = After all the fuss dies down, what really happened | date = November 10, 2005 | url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110814133937/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article588553.ece |work=The Times |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> New Zealand enacted the [[Terrorism Suppression Act 2002]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Terrorism Suppression Act 2002|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111219044052/http://legislation.co.nz/act/public/2002/0034/19.0/DLM2493700.html|publisher=New Zealand Government|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
In the United States, the [[Department of Homeland Security]] was created by the [[Homeland Security Act]] to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The [[USA Patriot Act]] gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge, to monitor telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned [[sky marshals]] to flights. Further, the [[Aviation and Transportation Security Act]] made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for [[airport security]]. The law created the [[Transportation Security Administration]] to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.<ref name='Modern World History'>{{cite book | last1 = Beck | first1 = Roger | title = Modern World History | chapter = 20 | publisher = [[Holt McDougal]] | year = 2004 | pages = 657–8 | isbn = 978-0-618-69012-1}}</ref> After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] and the [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]] program (see [[2013 mass surveillance disclosures]]), Representative [[Sensenbrenner|Jim Sensenbrenner]], Republican of [[Wisconsin]], who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the National Security Agency overstepped its bounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/07/opinion/president-obamas-dragnet.html?src=me&ref=general&pagewanted=all|title=President Obama's Dragnet|date=6 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sensenbrenner.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=337001|title=Author of Patriot Act: FBI's FISA Order is Abuse of Patriot Act|date=6 June 2013 }}</ref>
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In the United States, the [[Department of Homeland Security]] was created by the [[Homeland Security Act]] to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The [[USA Patriot Act]] gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge, to monitor telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned [[sky marshals]] to flights. Further, the [[Aviation and Transportation Security Act]] made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for [[airport security]]. The law created the [[Transportation Security Administration]] to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.<ref name='Modern World History'>{{cite book | last1 = Beck | first1 = Roger | title = Modern World History | chapter = 20 | publisher = [[Holt McDougal]] | year = 2004 | pages = 657–8 | isbn = 978-0-618-69012-1}}</ref> After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] and the [[PRISM (surveillance program)|PRISM]] program (see [[2013 mass surveillance disclosures]]), Representative [[Sensenbrenner|Jim Sensenbrenner]], Republican of [[Wisconsin]], who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the National Security Agency overstepped its bounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/07/opinion/president-obamas-dragnet.html?src=me&ref=general&pagewanted=all|title=President Obama's Dragnet|date=6 June 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610061511/http://sensenbrenner.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=337001|title=Author of Patriot Act: FBI's FISA Order is Abuse of Patriot Act|date=6 June 2013 }}</ref>
   
 
==Investigations==
 
==Investigations==
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[[File:Mohamed Atta.jpg|thumb|alt= A head shot of a man in his thirties looking expressionless toward the camera|[[Mohamed Atta]], an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the hijackers.]]
 
[[File:Mohamed Atta.jpg|thumb|alt= A head shot of a man in his thirties looking expressionless toward the camera|[[Mohamed Atta]], an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the hijackers.]]
The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sperry|first=Paul|title=Airline denied Atta Paradise Wedding Suit |url=http://www.wnd.com/2002/09/15172/ |publisher=World News Daily|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language (sic) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.<ref name="Unraveling 9-11 Was in the Bags">{{cite news | title = Unraveling 9–11 Was in the Bags | date = February 6, 2009 | url = http://www.securityinfowatch.com/news/10555883/unraveling-9-11-was-in-the-bags |work=Newsday |accessdate=April 11, 2012}}</ref> Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Against All Enemies]]: Inside America's War on Terrorism |last=Clarke |first=Richard A. |year=2004 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-6823-3 |pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name=nineteen>{{cite web|title=FBI Announces List of 19 Hijackers|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-announces-list-of-19-hijackers|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> On September 27, 2001, they released photos of all 19 hijackers, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.<ref>{{cite web|title=The FBI Releases 19 Photographs of Individuals Believed to be the Hijackers of the Four Airliners that Crashed on September 11, 2001|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/the-fbi-releases-19-photographs-of-individuals-believed-to-be-the-hijackers|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two from the [[United Arab Emirates]], one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news|last=Johnston|first=David|title=TWO YEARS LATER: 9/11 TACTICS; Official Says Qaeda Recruited Saudi Hijackers to Strain Ties|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/09/us/two-years-later-9-11-tactics-official-says-qaeda-recruited-saudi-hijackers.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=New York Times|date=September 9, 2003}}</ref>
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The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sperry|first=Paul|title=Airline denied Atta Paradise Wedding Suit |url=http://www.wnd.com/2002/09/15172/ |publisher=World News Daily|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language (sic) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.<ref name="Unraveling 9-11 Was in the Bags">{{cite news | title = Unraveling 9–11 Was in the Bags | date = February 6, 2009 | url = http://www.securityinfowatch.com/news/10555883/unraveling-9-11-was-in-the-bags |work=Newsday |accessdate=April 11, 2012}}</ref> Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Against All Enemies]]: Inside America's War on Terrorism |last=Clarke |first=Richard A. |year=2004 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7432-6823-3 |pages=13–14}}</ref><ref name=nineteen>{{cite web|title=FBI Announces List of 19 Hijackers|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/fbi-announces-list-of-19-hijackers|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> On September 27, 2001, they released photos of all 19 hijackers, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.<ref>{{cite web|title=The FBI Releases 19 Photographs of Individuals Believed to be the Hijackers of the Four Airliners that Crashed on September 11, 2001|url=https://www.fbi.gov/news/pressrel/press-releases/the-fbi-releases-19-photographs-of-individuals-believed-to-be-the-hijackers|publisher=Federal Bureau of Investigation|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two from the [[United Arab Emirates]], one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.<ref>{{cite news|last=Johnston|first=David|title=TWO YEARS LATER: 9/11 TACTICS; Official Says Qaeda Recruited Saudi Hijackers to Strain Ties|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/09/us/two-years-later-9-11-tactics-official-says-qaeda-recruited-saudi-hijackers.html|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=The New York Times|date=September 9, 2003}}</ref>
   
 
By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.<ref>{{cite news |title=Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015065134/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archivedate=October 15, 2009|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=The Independent|date=September 30, 2001 |location=London}}</ref> Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 266-272</ref> and hijacker [[Mohammed Atta]] had previously gone to [[Afghanistan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121109021924/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1000987-2%2C00.html The Manhunt Goes Global] Time magazine October 15, 2001</ref> He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.<ref>{{cite news |first1=John |last1=Tagliabue |author2=Bonner, Raymond |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE5DA173DF93AA1575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=A Nation challenged: German Intelligence; German Data Led U.S. to Search For More Suicide Hijacker Teams |work=The New York Times |date=September 29, 2001 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> One of the members of the [[Hamburg cell]] was discovered to have been in communication with [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] who was identified as a member of [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 276-277</ref>
 
By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.<ref>{{cite news |title=Piece by piece, the jigsaw of terror revealed |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015065134/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/piece-by-piece-the-jigsaw-of-terror-revealed-671334.html|archivedate=October 15, 2009|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=The Independent|date=September 30, 2001 |location=London}}</ref> Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 266-272</ref> and hijacker [[Mohammed Atta]] had previously gone to [[Afghanistan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121109021924/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C1000987-2%2C00.html The Manhunt Goes Global] Time magazine October 15, 2001</ref> He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.<ref>{{cite news |first1=John |last1=Tagliabue |author2=Bonner, Raymond |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE5DA173DF93AA1575AC0A9679C8B63 |title=A Nation challenged: German Intelligence; German Data Led U.S. to Search For More Suicide Hijacker Teams |work=The New York Times |date=September 29, 2001 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> One of the members of the [[Hamburg cell]] was discovered to have been in communication with [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] who was identified as a member of [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/911Report.pdf 9/11 Commission Report] pp. 276-277</ref>
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{{Main article|Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001}}
 
{{Main article|Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001}}
   
In February 2002 the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] and the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the [[U.S. Intelligence Community]].<ref>[http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/press/record.cfm?id=263577 Press Release of Intelligence Committee], Senate and House Intelligence Committees Announce Joint Inquiry into the September 11 Terrorist Attacks, February 14, 2002.</ref> Their 832 page report released in December 2002<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/911.html |title=Congressional Reports: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=August 10, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204747/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//serialset/creports/911.html |archivedate=August 7, 2010 }}</ref> detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.<ref name=Theoharis1>Athan G. Theoharis, editor, ''The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny'', [[Greenwood Publishing Group]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=-nj4RLdHCU0C&pg=PA223 p. 222-224], 2006, ISBN 0-313-33282-7</ref> The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of [[Saudi Arabia]]n government officials from non-classified sources.<ref name=McClatchydc>Ali Watkins, [http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html?rh=1 Senate intelligence panel could seek to declassify documents; it just doesn't] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903123631/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html?rh=1 |date=September 3, 2014 }}, [[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy Washington Bureau]], August 12, 2013. </ref> Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.<ref name=Theoharis1 /> In December 2002 the inquiry's chair [[Bob Graham]] (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics-july-dec02-intelligence_12-11/ Improving Intelligence], [[PBS]] interview with Sen. Bob Graham, December 11, 2002.</ref> September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.<ref name=Theoharis1 /> September 11 victim families,<ref>Chris Mondics, [http://articles.philly.com/2014-03-31/business/48708504_1_osama-president-obama-law-firm Struggling to detail alleged Saudi role in 9/11 attacks], [[Philadelphia Inquirer]], March 31, 2014.</ref> members of congress<ref>Paul Sperry, [http://nypost.com/2013/12/15/inside-the-saudi-911-coverup/ Inside the Saudi 9/11 coverup], [[New York Post]], December 15, 2013.</ref><ref>[https://jones.house.gov/sites/jones.house.gov/files/Reps.%20Jones%20and%20Lynch%20Letter%20to%20Obama_28%20Pages.pdf April 10, 2014 Letter to Barak Obama], signed by Representatives [[Walter B. Jones, Jr.]] and [[Stephen Lynch (politician)|Stephen Lynch]].</ref> and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.<ref>[[Jake Tapper]], [http://thelead.blogs.cnn.com/2014/09/08/why-hasnt-obama-kept-promise-to-declassify-28-pages-about-911 Why hasn't Obama kept promise to declassify 28 pages of a report about 9/11?"], [[CNN]], September 8, 2014.</ref><ref>Lawrence Wright, [http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/twenty-eight-pages The Twenty-Eight Pages], [[The New Yorker]], September 9, 2014.</ref> In June 2016, CIA chief [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]] says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.<ref>Euan McKirdy, [http://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/12/politics/cia-john-brennan-saudi-arabia-9-11/], [[CNN]], June 14, 2016.</ref>
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In February 2002 the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] and the [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the [[U.S. Intelligence Community]].<ref>[http://www.intelligence.senate.gov/press/record.cfm?id=263577 Press Release of Intelligence Committee], Senate and House Intelligence Committees Announce Joint Inquiry into the September 11 Terrorist Attacks, February 14, 2002.</ref> Their 832 page report released in December 2002<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpoaccess.gov/serialset/creports/911.html |title=Congressional Reports: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=August 10, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100807204747/http://www.gpoaccess.gov//serialset/creports/911.html |archivedate=August 7, 2010 }}</ref> detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.<ref name=Theoharis1>Athan G. Theoharis, editor, ''The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny'', [[Greenwood Publishing Group]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=-nj4RLdHCU0C&pg=PA223 p. 222-224], 2006, ISBN 0-313-33282-7</ref> The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of [[Saudi Arabia]]n government officials from non-classified sources.<ref name=McClatchydc>Ali Watkins, [http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html?rh=1 Senate intelligence panel could seek to declassify documents; it just doesn't] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903123631/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2013/08/12/199122_senate-intelligence-panel-could.html?rh=1 |date=September 3, 2014 }}, [[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy Washington Bureau]], August 12, 2013. </ref> Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.<ref name=Theoharis1 /> In December 2002 the inquiry's chair [[Bob Graham]] (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/politics-july-dec02-intelligence_12-11/ Improving Intelligence], [[PBS]] interview with Sen. Bob Graham, December 11, 2002.</ref> September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.<ref name=Theoharis1 /> September 11 victim families,<ref>Chris Mondics, [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407230637/http://articles.philly.com/2014-03-31/business/48708504_1_osama-president-obama-law-firm Struggling to detail alleged Saudi role in 9/11 attacks], [[Philadelphia Inquirer]], March 31, 2014.</ref> members of congress<ref>Paul Sperry, [http://nypost.com/2013/12/15/inside-the-saudi-911-coverup/ Inside the Saudi 9/11 coverup], [[New York Post]], December 15, 2013.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140418230704/https://jones.house.gov/sites/jones.house.gov/files/Reps.%20Jones%20and%20Lynch%20Letter%20to%20Obama_28%20Pages.pdf April 10, 2014 Letter to Barak Obama], signed by Representatives [[Walter B. Jones, Jr.]] and [[Stephen Lynch (politician)|Stephen Lynch]].</ref> and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.<ref>[[Jake Tapper]], [http://thelead.blogs.cnn.com/2014/09/08/why-hasnt-obama-kept-promise-to-declassify-28-pages-about-911 Why hasn't Obama kept promise to declassify 28 pages of a report about 9/11?"], [[CNN]], September 8, 2014.</ref><ref>Lawrence Wright, [http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/twenty-eight-pages The Twenty-Eight Pages], [[The New Yorker]], September 9, 2014.</ref> In June 2016, CIA chief [[John O. Brennan|John Brennan]] says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.<ref>Euan McKirdy, [http://edition.cnn.com/2016/06/12/politics/cia-john-brennan-saudi-arabia-9-11/], [[CNN]], June 14, 2016.</ref>
   
 
In September 2016, the Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]] that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue [[Saudi Arabia]] for its government's [[Alleged Saudi role in September 11 attacks|alleged role in the attacks]].<ref>"[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ Why Obama doesn't want 9/11 families suing Saudi Arabia]". ''USA Today''. September 23, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-warns-750b-response-9-11-liability-suit-article-1.2603675 Saudi Arabia threatens to pull $750B from U.S. economy if Congress allows them to be sued for 9/11 terror attacks]". ''New York Daily News.'' April 16, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-government-didn-fund-terrorists-obama-aide-article-1.2605678 Mayor de Blasio joins Democrats in calling on President Obama to go after Saudi Arabia on 9/11 ties]". ''New York Daily News''. April 19, 2016.</ref>
 
In September 2016, the Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]] that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue [[Saudi Arabia]] for its government's [[Alleged Saudi role in September 11 attacks|alleged role in the attacks]].<ref>"[http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ Why Obama doesn't want 9/11 families suing Saudi Arabia]". ''USA Today''. September 23, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-warns-750b-response-9-11-liability-suit-article-1.2603675 Saudi Arabia threatens to pull $750B from U.S. economy if Congress allows them to be sued for 9/11 terror attacks]". ''New York Daily News.'' April 16, 2016.</ref><ref>"[http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/saudi-government-didn-fund-terrorists-obama-aide-article-1.2605678 Mayor de Blasio joins Democrats in calling on President Obama to go after Saudi Arabia on 9/11 ties]". ''New York Daily News''. April 19, 2016.</ref>
   
 
===9/11 Commission===
 
===9/11 Commission===
 
{{Main article|9/11 Commission|9/11 Commission Report|Criticism of the 9/11 Commission}} The ''National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States'' (9/11 Commission), chaired by [[Thomas Kean]] and [[Lee H. Hamilton]], was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/about/bio_kean.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=govinfo.library.unt.edu|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> On July 22, 2004, the Commission issued the [[9/11 Commission Report]]. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks. Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators, Representatives, and Governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management".<ref>{{cite web|title=Foresight-and Hindsight|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch11.htm|work=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bennett|first=Brian|title=Post-9/11 assessment sees major security gaps|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/30/nation/la-na-911-report-card-20110831|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=August 30, 2011}}</ref>
{{Main article|9/11 Commission|9/11 Commission Report|Criticism of the 9/11 Commission}}
 
The ''National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States'' (9/11 Commission), chaired by [[Thomas Kean]] and [[Lee H. Hamilton]], was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/about/bio_kean.htm|title=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=govinfo.library.unt.edu|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> On July 22, 2004, the Commission issued the [[9/11 Commission Report]]. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks. Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators, Representatives, and Governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management".<ref>{{cite web|title=Foresight-and Hindsight|url=http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report_Ch11.htm|work=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|publisher=National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bennett|first=Brian|title=Post-9/11 assessment sees major security gaps|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2011/aug/30/nation/la-na-911-report-card-20110831|accessdate=September 4, 2011 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=August 30, 2011}}</ref>
 
   
 
===National Institute of Standards and Technology===
 
===National Institute of Standards and Technology===
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| first = Steve
 
| first = Steve
 
| publisher = Purdue News Service
 
| publisher = Purdue News Service
| url = http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2007a/070612HoffmannWTC.html
+
| url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070617013447/http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2007a/070612HoffmannWTC.html
 
| date=June 12, 2007
 
| date=June 12, 2007
 
| accessdate=September 4, 2011
 
| accessdate=September 4, 2011
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==Rebuilding==
 
==Rebuilding==
 
[[File:OneWorldTradeCenter.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Rebuilt One World Trade Center nearing completion in July 2013]]
 
[[File:OneWorldTradeCenter.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Rebuilt One World Trade Center nearing completion in July 2013]]
{{Further|World Trade Center site|World Trade Center (2001–present)|Construction of One World Trade Center|One World Trade Center}}
+
{{Further|World Trade Center site|World Trade Center (2001–present)|Construction of One World Trade Center|One World Trade Center}} On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."<ref>{{cite news|last=Taylor |first=Tess |url=http://www.architectureweek.com/2001/0926/today.html |title=Rebuilding in New York |date=September 26, 2001 |publisher=Architecture Week |issue=68 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."<ref>{{cite news|last=Taylor |first=Tess |url=http://www.architectureweek.com/2001/0926/today.html |title=Rebuilding in New York |date=September 26, 2001 |publisher=Architecture Week |issue=68 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
 
   
The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|last=Oglesby |first=Christy |title=Phoenix rises: Pentagon honors 'hard-hat patriots' |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |publisher=CNN |date=September 11, 2002 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218040531/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |archivedate=December 18, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The temporary [[World Trade Center (PATH station)|World Trade Center PATH station]] opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7&nbsp;World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder [[Larry Silverstein]] and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20913F63A550C718EDDA00894DE404482 |title=An Agreement Is Formalized on Rebuilding at Ground Zero |work=The New York Times |last=Bagli |first=Charles V. |date=September 22, 2006|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The construction of [[One World Trade Center]] began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1 WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541&nbsp;m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/1-wtc-spire-bringing-full-height-article-1.1340224|title = One World Trade Center gets spire, bringing it to its full 1,776-foot height|last = Badia|first = Erik|date = May 10, 2013|work = New York Daily News website|access-date = January 12, 2015|last2 = Sit|first2 = Ryan}}</ref> One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.<ref name="MooreOneWTC" /><ref>{{cite news|url = http://time.com/3553897/one-world-trade-center-freedom-tower-opens-doors-new-york-city-911/|title = One World Trade Center Opens Its Doors|last = Iyengar|first = Rishi|date = November 3, 2014|work = TIME.com|access-date = January 12, 2015}}</ref>
+
The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.<ref>{{cite news|last=Oglesby |first=Christy |title=Phoenix rises: Pentagon honors 'hard-hat patriots' |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |publisher=CNN |date=September 11, 2002 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218040531/http://archives.cnn.com/2002/US/09/11/ar911.memorial.pentagon/ |archivedate=December 18, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2014}}</ref> The temporary [[World Trade Center (PATH station)|World Trade Center PATH station]] opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7&nbsp;World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder [[Larry Silverstein]] and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511132110/https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20913F63A550C718EDDA00894DE404482 |title=An Agreement Is Formalized on Rebuilding at Ground Zero |work=The New York Times |last=Bagli |first=Charles V. |date=September 22, 2006|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> The construction of [[One World Trade Center]] began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1 WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541&nbsp;m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/1-wtc-spire-bringing-full-height-article-1.1340224|title = One World Trade Center gets spire, bringing it to its full 1,776-foot height|last = Badia|first = Erik|date = May 10, 2013|work = New York Daily News website|access-date = January 12, 2015|last2 = Sit|first2 = Ryan}}</ref> One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.<ref name="MooreOneWTC" /><ref>{{cite news|url = http://time.com/3553897/one-world-trade-center-freedom-tower-opens-doors-new-york-city-911/|title = One World Trade Center Opens Its Doors|last = Iyengar|first = Rishi|date = November 3, 2014|work = TIME.com|access-date = January 12, 2015}}</ref>
   
 
On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood. Construction has begun on all three of these towers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lower Manhattan: Current Construction|url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914070256/http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archivedate=September 14, 2011|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center|accessdate=September 8, 2011}}</ref>
 
On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood. Construction has begun on all three of these towers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lower Manhattan: Current Construction|url=http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914070256/http://www.lowermanhattan.info/construction/project_updates/|archivedate=September 14, 2011|publisher=Lower Manhattan Construction Command Center|accessdate=September 8, 2011}}</ref>
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In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around [[World Trade Center site|Ground Zero]]. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other."<ref>{{cite web|last=Sigmund|first=Pete|title=Crews Assist Rescuers in Massive WTC Search|url=http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/Crews-Assist-Rescuers-in-Massive-WTC-Search/1531/|publisher=Construction Equipment Guide|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
 
In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around [[World Trade Center site|Ground Zero]]. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other."<ref>{{cite web|last=Sigmund|first=Pete|title=Crews Assist Rescuers in Massive WTC Search|url=http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/Crews-Assist-Rescuers-in-Massive-WTC-Search/1531/|publisher=Construction Equipment Guide|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
One of the first memorials was the [[Tribute in Light]], an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.<ref>{{cite news| title = Tribute in light to New York victims|publisher=BBC News| date=March 6, 2002| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1857699.stm| accessdate=April 1, 2012}}</ref> In New York, the [[World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition]] was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wtcsitememorial.org/about.html |title=About the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |publisher=World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition}}</ref> The winning design, ''[[National September 11 Memorial & Museum|Reflecting Absence]]'', was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title = WTC Memorial Construction Begins| publisher = [[CBS News]]| date=March 6, 2006| url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/13/national/main1393070.shtml| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
+
One of the first memorials was the [[Tribute in Light]], an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.<ref>{{cite news| title = Tribute in light to New York victims|publisher=BBC News| date=March 6, 2002| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1857699.stm| accessdate=April 1, 2012}}</ref> In New York, the [[World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition]] was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040202064817/http://wtcsitememorial.org/about.html |title=About the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |publisher=World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition}}</ref> The winning design, ''[[National September 11 Memorial & Museum|Reflecting Absence]]'', was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title = WTC Memorial Construction Begins| publisher = [[CBS News]]| date=March 6, 2006| url = http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/03/13/national/main1393070.shtml| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
   
 
The [[Pentagon Memorial]] was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Nick |last=Miroff |title=Creating a Place Like No Other |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/10/AR2008091000018.html |work=The Washington Post |publisher=[[The Washington Post Company]] |date=September 11, 2008 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Nick |last=Miroff |title=A Long-Awaited Opening, Bringing Closure to Many |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/11/AR2008091100579.html?hpid=topnews |work=The Washington Post |publisher=The Washington Post Company |date=September 12, 2008| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.<ref name="dwyer-may2007">{{cite news|last=Dwyer |first=Timothy |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/25/AR2007052502284.html| title=Pentagon Memorial Progress Is Step Forward for Families| date=May 26, 2007|work=The Washington Post| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |title=DefenseLINK News Photos&nbsp;– Pentagon's America's Heroes Memorial |publisher=Department of Defense |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130081905/http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |archivedate=November 30, 2009 }}</ref>
 
The [[Pentagon Memorial]] was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|first=Nick |last=Miroff |title=Creating a Place Like No Other |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/10/AR2008091000018.html |work=The Washington Post |publisher=[[The Washington Post Company]] |date=September 11, 2008 |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Nick |last=Miroff |title=A Long-Awaited Opening, Bringing Closure to Many |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/11/AR2008091100579.html?hpid=topnews |work=The Washington Post |publisher=The Washington Post Company |date=September 12, 2008| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.<ref name="dwyer-may2007">{{cite news|last=Dwyer |first=Timothy |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/25/AR2007052502284.html| title=Pentagon Memorial Progress Is Step Forward for Families| date=May 26, 2007|work=The Washington Post| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |title=DefenseLINK News Photos&nbsp;– Pentagon's America's Heroes Memorial |publisher=Department of Defense |accessdate=September 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130081905/http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/newsphoto.aspx?newsphotoid=4018 |archivedate=November 30, 2009 }}</ref>
   
In Shanksville, a permanent [[Flight 93 National Memorial]] is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site, bisected by the plane's path, while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title = Sept. 11 Flight 93 Memorial Design Chosen| publisher = [[Fox News Channel|Fox News]]| date=September 8, 2005| url = http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,168821,00.html| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> A temporary memorial is located {{convert|500|yd|0}} from the crash site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/flni|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411125737/http://www.nps.gov/flni|archivedate=April 11, 2008 |title=Flight 93 Memorial Project |publisher=Flight 93 Memorial Project / National Park Service |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
+
In Shanksville, a permanent [[Flight 93 National Memorial]] is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site, bisected by the plane's path, while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims.<ref>{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |title = Sept. 11 Flight 93 Memorial Design Chosen| publisher = [[Fox News Channel|Fox News]]| date=September 8, 2005| url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070523094207/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,168821,00.html| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> A temporary memorial is located {{convert|500|yd|0}} from the crash site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/flni|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411125737/http://www.nps.gov/flni|archivedate=April 11, 2008 |title=Flight 93 Memorial Project |publisher=Flight 93 Memorial Project / National Park Service |accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.<ref name="ap2008-08-24">{{cite news |last=Nephin|first=Dan | title = Steel cross goes up near flight's 9/11 Pa. crash site | date = August 24, 2008 | agency = Associated Press | url =https://web.archive.org/web/20111021140020/http://global.christianpost.com/news/steel-cross-installed-near-flight-93-site-in-pa-33978/ |accessdate=September 5, 2011}}</ref> It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gaskell |first=Stephanie|title=Pa. site of 9/11 crash gets WTC beam |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/us/05memorial.html|date=August 25, 2008|work=New York Daily news|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families, and by many other organizations and private figures.<ref>{{cite news| last=Fessenden| first=Ford| title= 9/11; After the World Gave: Where $2 Billion in Kindness Ended Up| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9505E3DB1030F93BA25752C1A9649C8B63|work=The New York Times| date=November 18, 2002| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.<ref name='ap2008-08-24'>{{cite news |last=Nephin|first=Dan | title = Steel cross goes up near flight's 9/11 Pa. crash site | date = August 24, 2008 | agency = Associated Press | url =http://global.christianpost.com/news/steel-cross-installed-near-flight-93-site-in-pa-33978/ |accessdate=September 5, 2011}}</ref> It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Gaskell |first=Stephanie|title=Pa. site of 9/11 crash gets WTC beam |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/us/05memorial.html|date=August 25, 2008|work=New York Daily news|accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref> Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families, and by many other organizations and private figures.<ref>{{cite news| last=Fessenden| first=Ford| title= 9/11; After the World Gave: Where $2 Billion in Kindness Ended Up| url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9505E3DB1030F93BA25752C1A9649C8B63|work=The New York Times| date=November 18, 2002| accessdate=September 4, 2011}}</ref>
 
   
 
On every anniversary, in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/11/at-a-memorial-ceremony-loss-and-tension/?hp | work=The New York Times | title=At a Memorial Ceremony, Loss and Tension | first=Andy | last=Newman | date=September 11, 2010}}</ref> and asks Americans to observe [[Patriot Day]] with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the President's spouse.
 
On every anniversary, in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/09/11/at-a-memorial-ceremony-loss-and-tension/?hp | work=The New York Times | title=At a Memorial Ceremony, Loss and Tension | first=Andy | last=Newman | date=September 11, 2010}}</ref> and asks Americans to observe [[Patriot Day]] with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the President's spouse.
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* [https://archive.org/details/911 Understanding 9/11&nbsp;– A Television News Archive] at [[Internet Archive]]
 
* [https://archive.org/details/911 Understanding 9/11&nbsp;– A Television News Archive] at [[Internet Archive]]
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html CNN.com]&nbsp;– Video archive, including the first and second planes
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010918015819/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html CNN.com]&nbsp;– Video archive, including the first and second planes
 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110828175053/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/remembering-9-11/ Remembering 9/11]&nbsp;– [[National Geographic Society]]
 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110828175053/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/remembering-9-11/ Remembering 9/11]&nbsp;– [[National Geographic Society]]
 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120410175421/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0%2C29307%2C1660644%2C00.html Time.com]&nbsp;– 'Shattered: a remarkable collection of photographs', [[James Nachtwey]]
 
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120410175421/http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0%2C29307%2C1660644%2C00.html Time.com]&nbsp;– 'Shattered: a remarkable collection of photographs', [[James Nachtwey]]

Revision as of 02:02, 18 July 2020

Template:Infobox civilian attack

The September 11 attacks (also referred to as 9/11)[nb 1] were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, and caused at least $10 billion in property and infrastructure damage[1][2] and $3 trillion in total costs.[3]

Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers (United Airlines and American Airlines)—all of which departed from airports in the northeastern United States bound for California—were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists. Two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. Within an hour and 42 minutes, both 110-story towers collapsed, with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex, including the 47-story 7 World Trade Center tower, as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon (the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense) in Arlington County, Virginia, leading to a partial collapse of the building's western side. The fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, initially was steered toward Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers. It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers[4] in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively.

Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had harbored al-Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaeda's leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks.[5] Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. Navy in May 2011.

The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets, closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13. Many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, and the Pentagon was repaired within a year. On November 18, 2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was officially opened on November 3, 2014.[6][7] Numerous memorials have been constructed, including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City, the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County, Virginia, and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Background

Al-Qaeda

Template:Campaignbox al-Qaeda attacks

Further information: Al-Qaeda and Jihad

The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets.[8] Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical.[9] In 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia.[10]

In a second fatwā in 1998, bin Laden outlined his objections to American foreign policy with respect to Israel, as well as the continued presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf War.[11] Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed. Muslim legal scholars "have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries", according to bin Laden.[11]

Osama bin Laden

Further information: Osama bin Laden, Death of Osama bin Laden, and Videos of Osama bin Laden
File:Osama bin Laden portrait.jpg

1997 picture of Osama bin Laden

Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement.[5][12][13] Al Jazeera broadcast a statement by bin Laden on September 16, 2001, stating, "I stress that I have not carried out this act, which appears to have been carried out by individuals with their own motivation."[14] In November 2001, U.S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi and admits foreknowledge of the attacks.[15] On December 27, 2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, "It has become clear that the West in general and America in particular have an unspeakable hatred for Islam. ... It is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, which kills our people. ... We say that the end of the United States is imminent, whether Bin Laden or his followers are alive or dead, for the awakening of the Muslim umma (nation) has occurred", but he stopped short of admitting responsibility for the attacks.[16] The transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims.

Shortly before the U.S. presidential election in 2004, in a taped statement, bin Laden publicly acknowledged al-Qaeda's involvement in the attacks on the U.S. and admitted his direct link to the attacks. He said that the attacks were carried out because, "we are free ... and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours."[17] Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.[13][18] Another video obtained by Al Jazeera in September 2006 shows bin Laden with Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail al-Shehri, as they make preparations for the attacks.[19] The U.S. never formally indicted bin Laden for the 9/11 attacks but he was on the FBI's Most Wanted List for the bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and Nairobi, Kenya.[20][21] After a 10-year manhunt, bin Laden was killed by American special forces in a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan on May 2, 2011.[22][23]

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed

Main article: Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
File:Khalid Shaikh Mohammed after capture.jpg

Khalid Sheikh Mohammed after his capture in 2003

The journalist Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel Al Jazeera reported that, in April 2002, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed admitted his involvement, along with Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[24][25][26] The 9/11 Commission Report determined that the animosity towards the United States felt by Mohammed, the principal architect of the 9/11 attacks, stemmed from his "violent disagreement with U.S. foreign policy favoring Israel".[27] Mohammed was also an adviser and financier of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the uncle of Ramzi Yousef, the lead bomber in that attack.[28][29]

Mohammed was arrested on March 1, 2003, in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, by Pakistani security officials working with the CIA, then transported to Guantanamo Bay and interrogated using methods including waterboarding.[30][31] During U.S. hearings at Guantanamo Bay in March 2007, Mohammed again confessed his responsibility for the attacks, stating he "was responsible for the 9/11 operation from A to Z" and that his statement was not made under duress.[26][32]

Other al-Qaeda members

Further information: Trials related to the September 11 attacks

In "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" from the trial of Zacarias Moussaoui, five people are identified as having been completely aware of the operation's details. They are bin Laden, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, Abu Turab al-Urduni, and Mohammed Atef.[33] To date, only peripheral figures have been tried or convicted for the attacks.

On September 26, 2005, the Spanish high court sentenced Abu Dahdah to 27 years in prison for conspiracy on the 9/11 attacks and being a member of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. At the same time, another 17 al-Qaeda members were sentenced to penalties of between six and eleven years.[34] On February 16, 2006, the Spanish Supreme Court reduced the Abu Dahdah penalty to 12 years because it considered that his participation in the conspiracy was not proven.[35]

Also, in 2006, Moussaoui, who some originally suspected might have been the assigned 20th hijacker, was convicted for the lesser role of conspiracy to commit acts of terrorism and air piracy. He is serving a life sentence without parole in the United States.[36][37] Mounir el-Motassadeq, an associate of the Hamburg-based hijackers, is serving 15 years in Germany for his role in helping the hijackers prepare for the attacks.[38]

The Hamburg cell in Germany included radical Islamists who eventually came to be key operatives in the 9/11 attacks.[39] Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, Ramzi bin al-Shibh, and Said Bahaji were all members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell.[40]

Motives

Main article: Motives for the September 11 attacks

Osama bin Laden's declaration of a holy war against the United States, and a 1998 fatwā signed by bin Laden and others, calling for the killing of Americans,[11] are seen by investigators as evidence of his motivation.[41] In bin Laden's November 2002 "Letter to America", he explicitly stated that al-Qaeda's motives for their attacks include:

  • U.S. support of Israel[42][43]
  • support for the "attacks against Muslims" in Somalia
  • support of Philippines against Muslims in the Moro conflict
  • support for Israeli "aggression" against Muslims in Lebanon
  • support of Russian "atrocities against Muslims" in Chechnya
  • pro-American governments in the Middle East (who "act as your agents") being against Muslim interests
  • support of Indian "oppression against Muslims" in Kashmir
  • the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia[44][45]
  • the sanctions against Iraq[46]

After the attacks, bin Laden and al-Zawahiri released additional video tapes and audio tapes, some of which repeated those reasons for the attacks. Two particularly important publications were bin Laden's 2002 "Letter to America",[47] and a 2004 video tape by bin Laden.[48]

Bin Laden interpreted Muhammad as having banned the "permanent presence of infidels in Arabia".[49] In 1996, bin Laden issued a fatwā calling for American troops to leave Saudi Arabia. In 1998, al-Qaeda wrote, "for over seven years the United States has been occupying the lands of Islam in the holiest of places, the Arabian Peninsula, plundering its riches, dictating to its rulers, humiliating its people, terrorizing its neighbors, and turning its bases in the Peninsula into a spearhead through which to fight the neighboring Muslim peoples."[50]

In a December 1999 interview, bin Laden said he felt that Americans were "too near to Mecca", and considered this a provocation to the entire Muslim world.[51] One analysis of suicide terrorism suggested that without U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, al-Qaeda likely would not have been able to get people to commit to suicide missions.[52]

In the 1998 fatwā, al-Qaeda identified the Iraq sanctions as a reason to kill Americans, condemning the "protracted blockade"[50] among other actions that constitute a declaration of war against "Allah, his messenger, and Muslims."[50] The fatwā declared that "the ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque of Mecca from their grip, and in order for their the Americans' armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim."[11][53]

Bin Laden claimed, in 2004, that the idea of destroying the towers had first occurred to him in 1982, when he witnessed Israel's bombardment of high-rise apartment buildings during the 1982 Lebanon War.[54][55] Some analysts, including Mearsheimer and Walt, also claim that one motivation for the attacks was U.S. support of Israel.[43][51] In 2004 and 2010, bin Laden again connected the September 11 attacks with U.S. support of Israel, although most of the letter expressed bin Laden's disdain for President Bush and bin Laden's hope to "destroy and bankrupt" the U.S.[56][57]

Other motives have been suggested in addition to those stated by bin Laden and al-Qaeda, including western support of Islamic and non-Islamic authoritarian regimes in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan and northern Africa, and the presence of western troops in some of these countries.[58] Some authors suggest the "humiliation" resulting from the Islamic world falling behind the Western world – this discrepancy rendered especially visible by the globalization trend[59][60] and a desire to provoke the U.S. into a broader war against the Islamic world in the hope of motivating more allies to support al-Qaeda. Similarly, others have argued that 9/11 was a strategic move with the objective of provoking America into a war that would incite a pan-Islamic revolution.[61][62]

Planning of the attacks

Main article: Planning of the September 11 attacks
File:911 - FEMA - WTC impacts (graphic).svg

Map showing the attacks on the World Trade Center (the planes are not drawn to scale)

The idea for the attacks came from Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who first presented it to Osama bin Laden in 1996.[63] At that time, bin Laden and al-Qaeda were in a period of transition, having just relocated back to Afghanistan from Sudan.[64] The 1998 African Embassy bombings and bin Laden's 1998 fatwā marked a turning point, as bin Laden became intent on attacking the United States.[64]

In late 1998 or early 1999, bin Laden gave approval for Mohammed to go forward with organizing the plot. A series of meetings occurred in early 1999, involving Mohammed, bin Laden, and his deputy Mohammed Atef.[64] Atef provided operational support for the plot, including target selections and helping arrange travel for the hijackers.[64] Bin Laden overruled Mohammed, rejecting some potential targets such as the U.S. Bank Tower in Los Angeles because, "there was not enough time to prepare for such an operation".[65][66]

File:World Trade Center, NY - 2001-09-11 - Debris Impact Areas.svg

Diagram showing the attacks on the World Trade Center

Bin Laden provided leadership and financial support for the plot, and was involved in selecting participants.[67] Bin Laden initially selected Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, both experienced jihadists who had fought in Bosnia. Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived in the United States in mid-January 2000. In spring 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar took flying lessons in San Diego, California, but both spoke little English, performed poorly with flying lessons, and eventually served as secondary – or "muscle" – hijackers.[68][69]

In late 1999, a group of men from Hamburg, Germany arrived in Afghanistan, including Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh.[70] Bin Laden selected these men because they were educated, could speak English, and had experience living in the West.[71] New recruits were routinely screened for special skills and al-Qaeda leaders consequently discovered that Hani Hanjour already had a commercial pilot's license.[72] Mohammed later said that he helped the hijackers blend in by teaching them how to order food in restaurants and dress in Western clothing.[73]

Hanjour arrived in San Diego on December 8, 2000, joining Hazmi.[74]:6–7 They soon left for Arizona, where Hanjour took refresher training.[74]:7 Marwan al-Shehhi arrived at the end of May 2000, while Atta arrived on June 3, 2000, and Jarrah arrived on June 27, 2000.[74]:6 Bin al-Shibh applied several times for a visa to the United States, but as a Yemeni, he was rejected out of concerns he would overstay his visa and remain as an illegal immigrant.[74]:4, 14 Bin al-Shibh stayed in Hamburg, providing coordination between Atta and Mohammed.[74]:16 The three Hamburg cell members all took pilot training in South Florida.[74]:6

In spring of 2001, the secondary hijackers began arriving in the United States.[75] In July 2001, Atta met with bin al-Shibh in Spain, where they coordinated details of the plot, including final target selection. Bin al-Shibh also passed along bin Laden's wish for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible.[76] Some of the hijackers received passports from corrupt Saudi officials who were family members, or used fraudulent passports to gain entry.[77]

Intelligence before the attacks

In late 1999, al-Qaeda associate Khallad contacted Mihdhar, telling him to meet him in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Hazmi and Abu Bara al Yemeni would also be in attendance. The NSA intercepted a telephone call mentioning the meeting, Mihdhar, and the name "Nawaf" (Hazmi). While the agency feared that "Something nefarious might be afoot", it took no further action. The CIA had already been alerted by Saudi intelligence to the status of Mihdhar and Hazmi as al-Qaeda members, and a CIA team broke into Mihdhar's Dubai hotel room and discovered that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. While Alec Station alerted intelligence agencies worldwide about this fact, it did not share this information with the FBI. The Malaysian Special Branch observed the January 5, 2000, meeting of the two al-Qaeda members, and informed the CIA that Mihdhar, Hazmi, and Khallad were flying to Bangkok, but the CIA never notified other agencies of this, nor did it ask the State Department to put Mihdhar on its watchlist. An FBI liaison to Alec Station asked permission to inform the FBI of the meeting, but was told that "'This is not a matter for the FBI.'"[78]

By late June, senior counter-terrorism official Richard Clarke and CIA director George Tenet were "convinced that a major series of attacks was about to come", although the CIA believed that the attacks would likely occur in Saudi Arabia or Israel.[79] In early July, Clarke put domestic agencies on "full alert", telling them that "Something really spectacular is going to happen here. soon." He asked the FBI and the State Department to alert the embassies and police departments, and the Defense Department to go to "Threat Condition Delta."[80][81] Clarke would later write that "Somewhere in CIA there was information that two known al Qaeda terrorists had come into the United States... in the FBI there was information that strange things had been going on at flight schools in the United States. They had specific information about individual terrorists. None of that information got to me or the White House."[82]

On July 13, Tom Wilshire, a CIA agent assigned to the FBI's international terrorism division, emailed his superiors at the CIA's Counterterrorism Center (CTC), requesting permission to inform the FBI that Hazmi was in the country and that Mihdhar had a U.S. visa. However, the CIA never responded.[83]

The same day in July, Margarette Gillespie, an FBI analyst working in the CTC, was told to review material about the Malaysia meeting. She was not told of the participants' presence in the U.S. However, the CIA did give Gillespie surveillance photos of Mihdhar and Hazmi from the meeting to show to FBI counterterrorism, but did not tell her their significance. The Intelink database informed her not to share intelligence material on the meeting to criminal investigators. When shown the photos, the FBI were refused more details on their significance, and also did not receive Mihdhar's date of birth or passport number.[84] In late August 2001, Gillespie told the INS, the State Department, the Customs Service, and the FBI to put Hazmi and Mihdhar on their watchlists, but the FBI was prohibited from using criminal agents in the search for the duo, which hindered their efforts.[85]

Also in July, a Phoenix-based FBI agent sent a message to FBI headquarters, Alec Station, and to FBI agents in New York, alerting them to "the possibility of a coordinated effort by Osama bin Laden to send students to the United States to attend civil aviation universities and colleges." The agent, Kenneth Williams, suggested the need to interview all flight school managers and identify all Arab students seeking flight training.[86] In July, Jordan alerted the U.S. that al-Qaeda was planning an attack on the U.S.; "months later", Jordan notified the U.S. that the attack's codename was "The Big Wedding", and that it involved airplanes.[87]

On August 6, the CIA's Presidential Daily Brief, designated "For the President Only", was entitled "Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in U.S." The memo noted that "The FBI information... indicates patterns of suspicious activity in this country consistent with preparations for hijackings or other types of attacks."[88]

In mid-August, one Minnesota flight school alerted the FBI to Zacarias Moussaoui, who had asked "suspicious questions." The FBI found that he was a radical who had traveled to Pakistan, and the INS arrested him for overstaying his French visa. However, their request to search his laptop was denied by FBI headquarters due to the lack of probable cause.[89]

The failures in intelligence-sharing were attributed to 1995 Justice Department policies limiting intelligence sharing, combined with CIA and NSA reluctance in revealing "sensitive sources and methods" such as tapped phones.[90] Testifying before the 9/11 Commission in April 2004, then-Attorney General John Ashcroft recalled that the "single greatest structural cause for the September 11th problem was the wall that segregated or separated criminal investigators and intelligence agents."[91] Clarke also wrote that "There were failures in the organizations... failures to get information to the right place at the right time..."[92]

Attacks

Further information: Timeline for the day of the September 11 attacks
File:Flight paths of hijacked planes-September 11 attacks.jpg

Flight paths of the four planes used on September 11

Early on the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 hijackers took control of four commercial airliners (two Boeing 757 and two Boeing 767) en route to California (three headed to LAX in Los Angeles, and one to SFO in San Francisco) after takeoffs from Logan International Airport in Boston, Massachusetts; Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey; and Washington Dulles International Airport in Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Virginia.[93] Large planes with long flights were selected for hijacking because they would be heavily fueled.[94]

The four flights were:

  • American Airlines Flight 11: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 7:59 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of 11 and 76 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 8:46 a.m.
  • United Airlines Flight 175: a Boeing 767 aircraft, departed Logan Airport at 8:14 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of nine and 51 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the South Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City at 9:03 a.m.
  • American Airlines Flight 77: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Washington Dulles International Airport at 8:20 a.m. en route to Los Angeles with a crew of six and 53 passengers, not including five hijackers. The hijackers flew the plane into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, at 9:37 a.m.
  • United Airlines Flight 93: a Boeing 757 aircraft, departed Newark International Airport at 8:42 a.m. en route to San Francisco, with a crew of seven and 33 passengers, not including four hijackers. As passengers attempted to subdue the hijackers, the aircraft crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, at 10:03 a.m.

Media coverage was extensive during the attacks and aftermath, beginning moments after the first crash into the World Trade Center.[95]

Events

File:September 11 attack seen from space by nasa.jpg

Plume of September 11 attack seen from space by NASA[96]

At 8:46 a.m., five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the northern façade of the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC), and at 9:03 a.m., another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern façade of the South Tower (2 WTC).[97][98] Five hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m.[99] A fourth flight, United Airlines Flight 93, under the control of four hijackers, crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers. Flight 93's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the White House.[94] Flight 93's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and passengers tried to seize control of the plane from the hijackers after learning through phone calls that Flights 11, 77, and 175 had been crashed into buildings that morning.[100] Once it became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain control of the plane, the hijackers rolled the plane and intentionally crashed it.[101][102]

File:September 11 2001 just collapsed.jpg

Collapse of the Towers

File:North face south tower after plane strike 9-11.jpg

The north face of Two World Trade Center (south tower) immediately after being struck by United Airlines Flight 175

Some passengers and crew members who called from the aircraft using the cabin airphone service and mobile phones provided details: several hijackers were aboard each plane; they used mace, tear gas, or pepper spray to overcome attendants; and some people aboard had been stabbed.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109] Reports indicated hijackers stabbed and killed pilots, flight attendants, and one or more passengers.[93][110] According to the 9/11 Commission's final report, the hijackers had recently purchased multi-function hand tools and assorted Leatherman-type utility knives with locking blades, which were not forbidden to passengers at the time, but were not found among the possessions left behind by the hijackers.[111][112] A flight attendant on Flight 11, a passenger on Flight 175, and passengers on Flight 93 said the hijackers had bombs, but one of the passengers said he thought the bombs were fake. The FBI found no traces of explosives at the crash sites, and the 9/11 Commission concluded that the bombs were probably fake.[93]

Three buildings in the World Trade Center collapsed due to fire-induced structural failure.[113] The South Tower collapsed at 9:59 a.m. after burning for 56 minutes in a fire caused by the impact of United Airlines Flight 175 and the explosion of its fuel.[113] The North Tower collapsed at 10:28 a.m. after burning for 102 minutes.[113] When the North Tower collapsed, debris fell on the nearby 7 World Trade Center building (7 WTC), damaging it and starting fires. These fires burned for hours, compromising the building's structural integrity, and 7 WTC collapsed at 5:21 p.m.[114][115] The west side of the Pentagon sustained significant damage.

File:Pentagon Security Camera 1.ogv

Security camera footage of American Airlines Flight 77 hitting the Pentagon.[116] The plane hits the Pentagon approximately 86 seconds after the start of this recording.

At 9:42 a.m., the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded all civilian aircraft within the continental U.S., and civilian aircraft already in flight were told to land immediately.[117] All international civilian aircraft were either turned back or redirected to airports in Canada or Mexico, and were banned from landing on United States territory for three days.[118] The attacks created widespread confusion among news organizations and air traffic controllers. Among the unconfirmed and often contradictory news reports aired throughout the day, one of the most prevalent said a car bomb had been detonated at the U.S. State Department's headquarters in Washington, D.C.[119] Another jet—Delta Air Lines Flight 1989—was suspected of having been hijacked, but the aircraft responded to controllers and landed safely in Cleveland, Ohio.[120]

In an April 2002 interview, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, who are believed to have organized the attacks, said Flight 93's intended target was the United States Capitol, not the White House.[121] During the planning stage of the attacks, Mohamed Atta, the hijacker and pilot of Flight 11, thought the White House might be too tough a target and sought an assessment from Hani Hanjour (who hijacked and piloted Flight 77).[122] Mohammed said al-Qaeda initially planned to target nuclear installations rather than the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, but decided against it, fearing things could "get out of control".[123] Final decisions on targets, according to Mohammed, were left in the hands of the pilots.[122]

Casualties

Main articles: Casualties of the September 11 attacks and Emergency workers killed in the September 11 attacks
File:September 17 2001.jpg

The remains of 6, 7, and 1 WTC on September 17, 2001

File:9-11 Wall segment.jpg

A surviving portion of the wall from the Twin Towers

The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people and the injuries of more than 6,000 others.[124] The death toll included 265 on the four planes (from which there were no survivors), 2,606 in the World Trade Center and in the surrounding area, and 125 at the Pentagon.[125][126] Nearly all of those who perished were civilians with the exceptions of 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, 55 military personnel, and the 19 terrorists who died in the attacks.[127][128] After New York, New Jersey lost the most state citizens, with the city of Hoboken having the most citizens that died in the attacks.[129] More than 90 countries lost citizens in the September 11 attacks.[130] The attacks of September 11, 2001, marked it the worst terrorist attack in world history and the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.[2]

In Arlington County, Virginia, 125 Pentagon workers lost their lives when Flight 77 crashed into the western side of the building. Of these, 70 were civilians and 55 were military personnel, many of them who worked for the United States Army or the United States Navy. The Army lost 47 civilian employees, six civilian contractors, and 22 soldiers, while the Navy lost six civilian employees, three civilian contractors, and 33 sailors. Seven Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) civilian employees were also among the dead in the attack, as well as an Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) contractor.[131][132][133] Lieutenant General Timothy Maude, an Army Deputy Chief of Staff, was the highest-ranking military official killed at the Pentagon.[134]

File:National Park Service 9-11 Statue of Liberty and WTC fire.jpg

Statue of Liberty with background view of burning World Trade Center

In New York City, more than 90% of the workers and visitors who died in the towers had been at or above the points of impact.[135] In the North Tower, 1,355 people at or above the point of impact were trapped and died of smoke inhalation, fell or jumped from the tower to escape the smoke and flames, or were killed in the building's eventual collapse. The destruction of all three staircases in the tower when Flight 11 hit made it impossible for anyone above the impact zone to escape. 107 people below the point of impact died as well.[135]

In the South Tower, one stairwell, Stairwell A, was left intact after Flight 175 hit, allowing 14 people located on the floors of impact (including one man who saw the plane coming at him) and four more from the floors above to escape. New York City 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded and as a result, told callers not to descend the tower on their own.[136] In total 630 people died in that tower, fewer than half the number killed in the North Tower.[135] Casualties in the South Tower were significantly reduced by some occupants deciding to start evacuating as soon as the North Tower was struck.[137]

File:French Urban Search and Rescue.jpg

Urban Search and Rescue Task Force German Shepherd dog works to uncover survivors at the site of the collapsed World Trade Center after the September 11, 2001, attacks.

At least 200 people fell or jumped to their deaths from the burning towers (as exemplified in the photograph The Falling Man), landing on the streets and rooftops of adjacent buildings hundreds of feet below.[138] Some occupants of each tower above the point of impact made their way toward the roof in hope of helicopter rescue, but the roof access doors were locked.[139] No plan existed for helicopter rescues, and the combination of roof equipment and thick smoke and intense heat prevented helicopters from approaching.[140] A total of 411 emergency workers died as they tried to rescue people and fight fires. The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) lost 343 firefighters, including a chaplain and two paramedics.[141] The New York City Police Department (NYPD) lost 23 officers.[142] The Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) lost 37 officers.[143] Eight emergency medical technicians (EMTs) and paramedics from private emergency medical services units were killed.[144]

Cantor Fitzgerald L.P., an investment bank on the 101st–105th floors of the North Tower, lost 658 employees, considerably more than any other employer.[145] Marsh Inc., located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93–100, lost 358 employees,[146][147] and 175 employees of Aon Corporation were also killed.[148] The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that about 17,400 civilians were in the World Trade Center complex at the time of the attacks. Turnstile counts from the Port Authority suggest 14,154 people were typically in the Twin Towers by 8:45 a.m.[149][150] Most people below the impact zone safely evacuated the buildings.[151]

Deaths (victims + hijackers)
New York City Template:Nobr Template:Nobr
American 11 87 + 5[152]
United 175 60 + 5[153]
Arlington Pentagon 125[154]
American 77 59 + 5[155]
Template:Nobr United 93 40 + 4[156]
Total Template:Nobr

Weeks after the attack, the death toll was estimated to be over 6,000, more than twice the number of deaths eventually confirmed.[157] The city was only able to identify remains for about 1,600 of the World Trade Center victims. The medical examiner's office collected "about 10,000 unidentified bone and tissue fragments that cannot be matched to the list of the dead".[158] Bone fragments were still being found in 2006 by workers who were preparing to demolish the damaged Deutsche Bank Building. In 2010, a team of anthropologists and archaeologists searched for human remains and personal items at the Fresh Kills Landfill, where seventy-two more human remains were recovered, bringing the total found to 1,845. DNA profiling continues in an attempt to identify additional victims.[159][160][161] The remains are being held in storage in Memorial Park, outside the New York City Medical Examiner's facilities. It was expected that the remains would be moved in 2013 to a repository behind a wall at the 9/11 museum. In July 2011, a team of scientists at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner was still trying to identify remains, in the hope that improved technology will allow them to identify other victims.[161] On March 20, 2015, the 1,640th victim was identified. There are still 1,113 victims who have not been identified.[162]

Damage

Further information: Collapse of the World Trade Center
File:World Trade Center 3 After 9-11 Attacks With Original Building Locations.jpg

World Trade Center site (Ground Zero) with an overlay showing the original building locations

File:Aerial view of the Pentagon during rescue operations post-September 11 attack.JPEG

The Pentagon was damaged by fire and partly collapsed.

Along with the 110-floor Twin Towers, numerous other buildings at the World Trade Center site were destroyed or badly damaged, including WTC buildings 3 through 7 and St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church.[163] The North Tower, South Tower, the Marriott Hotel (3 WTC), and 7 WTC were completely destroyed. The U.S. Customs House (6 World Trade Center), 4 World Trade Center, 5 World Trade Center, and both pedestrian bridges connecting buildings were severely damaged. The Deutsche Bank Building on 130 Liberty Street was partially damaged and demolished some years later, starting in 2007.[164][165] The two buildings of the World Financial Center also suffered damage.[164]

The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned as uninhabitable because of toxic conditions inside the office tower, and was deconstructed.[166][167] The Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was condemned due to extensive damage in the attacks, and is being rebuilt.[168] Other neighboring buildings (including 90 West Street and the Verizon Building) suffered major damage but have been restored.[169] World Financial Center buildings, One Liberty Plaza, the Millenium Hilton, and 90 Church Street had moderate damage and have since been restored.[170] Communications equipment on top of the North Tower was also destroyed, but media stations were quickly able to reroute the signals and resume their broadcasts.[163][171]

The Pentagon was severely damaged by the impact of American Airlines Flight 77 and ensuing fires, causing one section of the building to collapse.[172] As the airplane approached the Pentagon, its wings knocked down light poles and its right engine hit a power generator before crashing into the western side of the building.[173][174] The plane hit the Pentagon at the first-floor level. The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact, while the mid and tail sections kept moving for another fraction of a second.[175] Debris from the tail section penetrated furthest into the building, breaking through 310 feet (94 m) of the three outermost of the building's five rings.[175][176]

Rescue efforts

Main article: Rescue and recovery effort after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center
File:DN-SD-04-12744.JPEG

An injured victim of the Pentagon attack is evacuated.

The New York City Fire Department deployed 200 units (half of the department) to the World Trade Center. Their efforts were supplemented by numerous off-duty firefighters and emergency medical technicians.[177][178][179] The New York City Police Department sent Emergency Service Units and other police personnel, and deployed its aviation unit. Once on the scene, the FDNY, the NYPD, and the PAPD did not coordinate efforts and performed redundant searches for civilians.[177][180] As conditions deteriorated, the NYPD aviation unit relayed information to police commanders, who issued orders for its personnel to evacuate the towers; most NYPD officers were able to safely evacuate before the buildings collapsed.[180][181] With separate command posts set up and incompatible radio communications between the agencies, warnings were not passed along to FDNY commanders.

After the first tower collapsed, FDNY commanders issued evacuation warnings; however, due to technical difficulties with malfunctioning radio repeater systems, many firefighters never heard the evacuation orders. 9-1-1 dispatchers also received information from callers that was not passed along to commanders on the scene.[178] Within hours of the attack, a substantial search and rescue operation was launched. After months of around-the-clock operations, the World Trade Center site was cleared by the end of May 2002.[182]

Aftermath

File:Bush 9-11 on phone.jpg

George W. Bush gets a briefing on the attacks.

Further information: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks, Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks, Closings and cancellations following the September 11 attacks, Reactions to the September 11 attacks, U.S. government response to the September 11 attacks, U.S. military response during the September 11 attacks, and September 11th Victim Compensation Fund

The aftermath of the 9/11 attack resulted in immediate responses to the event, including domestic reactions, hate crimes, Muslim responses to the event, international responses to the attack, and military responses to the events. An extensive compensation program was quickly established by Congress in the aftermath to compensate the victims and families of victims of the 9/11 attack as well.[183][184]

Immediate response

File:The Pentagon is functioning.jpg

Eight hours after the attacks, Donald Rumsfeld, then U.S. Secretary of Defense, declares "The Pentagon is functioning."

At 8:32 a.m., FAA officials were notified Flight 11 had been hijacked and they in turn notified the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). NORAD scrambled two F-15s from Otis Air National Guard Base in Massachusetts and they were airborne by 8:53 a.m.[185] Because of slow and confused communication from FAA officials, NORAD had 9 minutes' notice that Flight 11 had been hijacked, and no notice about any of the other flights before they crashed.[185] After both of the Twin Towers had already been hit, more fighters were scrambled from Langley Air Force Base in Virginia at 9:30 a.m.[185] At 10:20 a.m. Vice President Dick Cheney issued orders to shoot down any commercial aircraft that could be positively identified as being hijacked. However, these instructions were not relayed in time for the fighters to take action.[185][186][187][188] Some fighters took to the air without live ammunition, knowing that to prevent the hijackers from striking their intended targets, the pilots might have to intercept and crash their fighters into the hijacked planes, possibly ejecting at the last moment.[189]

For the first time in U.S. history, SCATANA was invoked,[190] thus stranding tens of thousands of passengers across the world.[191] The FAA closed American airspace to all international flights, causing about five hundred flights to be turned back or redirected to other countries. Canada received 226 of the diverted flights and launched Operation Yellow Ribbon to deal with the large numbers of grounded planes and stranded passengers.[192]

The 9/11 attacks had immediate effects on the American people.[193] Police and rescue workers from around the country took leaves of absence, traveling to New York City to help recover bodies from the twisted remnants of the Twin Towers.[194] Blood donations across the U.S. surged in the weeks after 9/11.[195][196]

The deaths of adults in the attacks resulted in over 3,000 children losing a parent.[197] Subsequent studies documented children's reactions to these actual losses and to feared losses of life, the protective environment in the aftermath of the attacks, and effects on surviving caregivers.[198][199][200]

Domestic reactions

<templatestyles src="Multiple image/styles.css" wrapper=".tmulti"></templatestyles>

At a joint session of Congress, President Bush pledges "to defend freedom against terrorism", September 20, 2001 (audio only).

Following the attacks, President Bush's approval rating soared to 90%.[201] On September 20, 2001, he addressed the nation and a joint session of the United States Congress regarding the events of September 11 and the subsequent nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and described his intended response to the attacks. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly visible role won him high praise in New York and nationally.[202]

Many relief funds were immediately set up to assist victims of the attacks, with the task of providing financial assistance to the survivors of the attacks and to the families of victims. By the deadline for victim's compensation on September 11, 2003, 2,833 applications had been received from the families of those who were killed.[203] Contingency plans for the continuity of government and the evacuation of leaders were implemented soon after the attacks.[191] However, Congress was not told that the United States had been under a continuity of government status until February 2002.[204]

In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of 2002, creating the Department of Homeland Security. Congress also passed the USA PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect and prosecute terrorism and other crimes.[205] Civil liberties groups have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence.[206][207][208] In an effort to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced warrantless surveillance of telecommunications, which was sometimes criticized since it permitted the agency "to eavesdrop on telephone and e-mail communications between the United States and people overseas without a warrant".[209] In response to requests by various intelligence agencies, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court permitted an expansion of powers by the U.S. government in seeking, obtaining, and sharing information on U.S. citizens as well as non-U.S. people from around the world.[210]

Hate crimes

File:WTC-remnant highres.jpg

A fireman looks up at the remains of the South Tower.

File:September 14 2001 Ground Zero 02.jpg

A fireman stands behind rubble.

Shortly after the attacks, President Bush made a public appearance at Washington's largest Islamic Center and acknowledged the "incredibly valuable contribution" that millions of American Muslims made to their country and called for them "to be treated with respect."[211] However, numerous incidents of harassment and hate crimes against Muslims and South Asians were reported in the days following the attacks.[212][213][214] Sikhs were also targeted because Sikh males usually wear turbans, which are stereotypically associated with Muslims. There were reports of attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the firebombing of a Hindu temple), and assaults on people, including one murder: Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh mistaken for a Muslim, was fatally shot on September 15, 2001, in Mesa, Arizona.[214]

According to an academic study, people perceived to be Middle Eastern were as likely to be victims of hate crimes as followers of Islam during this time. The study also found a similar increase in hate crimes against people who may have been perceived as Muslims, Arabs, and others thought to be of Middle Eastern origin.[215] A report by the South Asian American advocacy group known as South Asian Americans Leading Together, documented media coverage of 645 bias incidents against Americans of South Asian or Middle Eastern descent between September 11 and 17. Various crimes such as vandalism, arson, assault, shootings, harassment, and threats in numerous places were documented.[216][217]

Muslim American response

Muslim organizations in the United States were swift to condemn the attacks and called "upon Muslim Americans to come forward with their skills and resources to help alleviate the sufferings of the affected people and their families".[218] These organizations included the Islamic Society of North America, American Muslim Alliance, American Muslim Council, Council on American-Islamic Relations, Islamic Circle of North America, and the Shari'a Scholars Association of North America. Along with monetary donations, many Islamic organizations launched blood drives and provided medical assistance, food, and shelter for victims.[219][220][221]

International reactions

Main article: Reactions to the September 11 attacks

The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support and solidarity.[222] Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity".[223] The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause.[224][225] Although Palestinian Authority (PA) president Yasser Arafat also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem—with a celebration involving 3,000 Palestinians dancing in the streets and handing out candy being filmed in Nablus despite alleged PA warnings that it could not guarantee the safety of journalists attempting to document the event. Similar demonstrations took place in Amman, Jordan, where there is a large population of Palestinian descent.[226] As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.[227]

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks, and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat all forms of terrorism in accordance with their Charter.[228] Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.[229][230] Law enforcement and intelligence agencies in a number of countries arrested alleged terrorists.[231][232]

British Prime Minister Tony Blair said Britain stood "shoulder to shoulder" with the United States.[233] A few days later, Blair flew to Washington to affirm British solidarity with the United States. In a speech to Congress, nine days after the attacks, which Blair attended as a guest, President Bush declared "America has no truer friend than Great Britain."[234] Subsequently, Prime Minister Blair embarked on two months of diplomacy to rally international support for military action; he held 54 meetings with world leaders and travelled more than 40,000 miles (60,000 km).[235]

File:Vladimir Putin in the United States 13-16 November 2001-54.jpg

Vladimir Putin and his wife attending a commemoration service for the victims of the September 11 attacks on November 16, 2001

Tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan following the attacks, fearing a response by the United States. Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001. Approximately one month after the attacks, the United States led a broad coalition of international forces to overthrow the Taliban regime from Afghanistan for their harboring of al-Qaeda.[236] Though Pakistani authorities were initially reluctant to align themselves with the United States against the Taliban, they permitted the coalition access to their military bases, and arrested and handed over to the U.S. over 600 suspected al-Qaeda members.[237][238]

The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants". The legitimacy of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and human rights organizations.[239][240][241]

On September 25, 2001, Iran's fifth president, Mohammad Khatami meeting British Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, said: "Iran fully understands the feelings of the Americans about the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington on September 11." He said although the American administrations had been at best indifferent about terrorist operations in Iran (since 1979), the Iranians instead felt differently and had expressed their sympathetic feelings with bereaved Americans in the tragic incidents in the two cities. He also stated that "Nations should not be punished in place of terrorists." [242] According to Radio Farda's website, when the attacks' news was released, some Iranian citizens gathered in front of the Embassy of Switzerland in Tehran, which serves as the protecting power of the United States in Iran (US interests protecting office in Iran), to express their sympathy and some of them lit candles as a symbol of mourning. This piece of news at Radio Farda's website also states that in 2011, on the anniversary of the attacks, United States Department of State, published a post at its blog, in which the Department thanked Iranian people for their sympathy and stated that they would never forget Iranian people's kindness on those harsh days.[243] After the attacks, both the President[244][245] and the Supreme Leader of Iran, condemned the attacks. The BBC and Time magazine published reports on holding candlelit vigils for the victims by Iranian citizens at their websites.[246][247] According to Politico Magazine, following the attacks, Sayyed Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, "suspended the usual 'Death to America' chants at Friday prayers" temporarily.[248]

Military operations

See also: War on Terror

At 2:40 p.m. in the afternoon of September 11, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was issuing rapid orders to his aides to look for evidence of Iraqi involvement. According to notes taken by senior policy official Stephen Cambone, Rumsfeld asked for, "Best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H." (Saddam Hussein) "at same time. Not only UBL" (Osama bin Laden).[249] Cambone's notes quoted Rumsfeld as saying, "Need to move swiftly – Near term target needs – go massive – sweep it all up. Things related and not."[250][251] In a meeting at Camp David on September 15 the Bush administration rejected the idea of attacking Iraq in response to 9/11.[252] Nonetheless, they later invaded the country with allies, citing "Saddam Hussein's support for terrorism".[253] At the time, as many as 7 in 10 Americans believed the Iraqi president played a role in the 9/11 attacks.[254] Three years later, Bush conceded that he had not. [255]

File:US 10th Mountain Division soldiers in Afghanistan.jpg

U.S. soldiers in Afghanistan

The NATO council declared the attacks on the United States were an attack on all NATO nations which satisfied of Article 5 of the NATO charter. This marked the first invocation Article 5, which had been written during the Cold War with an attack by the Soviet Union in mind.[256] Australian Prime Minister John Howard who was in Washington D.C. during the attacks invoked Article IV of the ANZUS treaty.[257] The Bush administration announced a War on Terror, with the stated goals of bringing bin Laden and al-Qaeda to justice and preventing the emergence of other terrorist networks.[258] These goals would be accomplished by imposing economic and military sanctions against states harboring terrorists, and increasing global surveillance and intelligence sharing.[259]

On September 14, 2001, the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists. Still in effect, it grants the President the authority to use all "necessary and appropriate force" against those whom he determined "planned, authorized, committed or aided" the September 11 attacks, or who harbored said persons or groups.[260]

On October 7, 2001, the War in Afghanistan began when U.S. and British forces initiated aerial bombing campaigns targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda camps, then later invaded Afghanistan with ground troops of the Special Forces.[261] This eventually led to the overthrow of the Taliban rule of Afghanistan with the Fall of Kandahar on December 7, 2001, by U.S. led coalition forces.[262] Conflict in Afghanistan between the Taliban insurgency and the Afghan forces backed by NATO Resolute Support Mission is ongoing. The Philippines and Indonesia, among other nations with their own internal conflicts with Islamic terrorism, also increased their military readiness.[263][264]

The military forces of the United States of America and the Islamic Republic of Iran cooperated with each other to overthrow the Taliban regime which had had conflicts with the government of Iran.[248] Iran's Quds Force helped US forces and Afghan rebels in the 2001 uprising in Herat.[265][266]

Effects

Health issues

Main article: Health effects arising from the September 11 attacks
File:Dust covered 911 victims.jpg

Survivors were covered in dust after the collapse of the towers.

Hundreds of thousands of tons of toxic debris containing more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens, were spread across Lower Manhattan due to the collapse of the Twin Towers.[267][268] Exposure to the toxins in the debris is alleged to have contributed to fatal or debilitating illnesses among people who were at ground zero.[269][270] The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security, but the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.[271]

Health effects extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown.[272] Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.[273] Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.[274] There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse, and were living or working nearby.[275] A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.[276]

Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.[277] Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.[278] Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.[279]

The United States Congress passed the James L. Zadroga 9/11 Health and Compensation Act on December 22, 2010, and President Barack Obama signed the act into law on January 2, 2011. It allocated $4.2 billion to create the World Trade Center Health Program, which provides testing and treatment for people suffering from long-term health problems related to the 9/11 attacks.[280][281] The WTC Health Program replaced preexisting 9/11-related health programs such as the Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program and the WTC Environmental Health Center program.[281]

Economic

Main article: Economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks
File:9-11 attacks effect on NYC economy.png

As shown in this table, the 9/11 attacks had a major effect on the economy of New York City (in red), compared to the United States' economy overall (in blue).

The attacks had a significant economic impact on United States and world markets.[282] The stock exchanges did not open on September 11 and remained closed until September 17. Reopening, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) fell 684 points, or 7.1%, to 8921, a record-setting one-day point decline.[283] By the end of the week, the DJIA had fallen 1,369.7 points (14.3%), at the time its largest one-week point drop in history.[284] In 2001 dollars, U.S. stocks lost $1.4 trillion in valuation for the week.[284]

In New York City, about 430,000 job-months and $2.8 billion dollars in wages were lost in the three months after the attacks. The economic effects were mainly on the economy's export sectors.[285] The city's GDP was estimated to have declined by $27.3 billion for the last three months of 2001 and all of 2002. The U.S. government provided $11.2 billion in immediate assistance to the Government of New York City in September 2001, and $10.5 billion in early 2002 for economic development and infrastructure needs.[286]

Also hurt were small businesses in Lower Manhattan near the World Trade Center, 18,000 of which were destroyed or displaced, resulting in lost jobs and their consequent wages. Assistance was provided by Small Business Administration loans, federal government Community Development Block Grants, and Economic Injury Disaster Loans.[286] Some 31,900,000 square feet (2,960,000 m2) of Lower Manhattan office space was damaged or destroyed.[287] Many wondered whether these jobs would return, and if the damaged tax base would recover.[288] Studies of the economic effects of 9/11 show the Manhattan office real-estate market and office employment were less affected than first feared, because of the financial services industry's need for face-to-face interaction.[289][290]

North American air space was closed for several days after the attacks and air travel decreased upon its reopening, leading to a nearly 20% cutback in air travel capacity, and exacerbating financial problems in the struggling U.S. airline industry.[291]

File:Deficits vs. Debt Increases - 2008.png

U.S. deficit and debt increases 2001–08

The September 11 attacks also led to the U.S. wars in Afghanistan and Iraq,[292] as well as additional homeland security spending, totaling at least $5 trillion.[293]

Cultural

Main article: Cultural influence of 9/11

The impact of 9/11 extends beyond geopolitics into society and culture in general. Immediate responses to 9/11 included greater focus on home life and time spent with family, higher church attendance, and increased expressions of patriotism such as the flying of flags.[294] The radio industry responded by removing certain songs from playlists, and the attacks have subsequently been used as background, narrative or thematic elements in film, television, music and literature. Already-running television shows as well as programs developed after 9/11 have reflected post-9/11 cultural concerns.[295] 9/11 conspiracy theories have become social phenomena, despite lack of support from expert scientists, engineers, and historians.[296] 9/11 has also had a major impact on the religious faith of many individuals; for some it strengthened, to find consolation to cope with the loss of loved ones and overcome their grief; others started to question their faith or lost it entirely, because they could not reconcile it with their view of religion.[297][298]

The culture of America succeeding the attacks is noted for heightened security and an increased demand thereof, as well as paranoia and anxiety regarding future terrorist attacks that includes most of the nation. Psychologists have also confirmed that there has been an increased amount of national anxiety in commercial air travel.[299]

Government policies toward terrorism

As a result of the attacks, many governments across the world passed legislation to combat terrorism.[300] In Germany, where several of the 9/11 terrorists had resided and taken advantage of that country's liberal asylum policies, two major anti-terrorism packages were enacted. The first removed legal loopholes that permitted terrorists to live and raise money in Germany. The second addressed the effectiveness and communication of intelligence and law enforcement.[301] Canada passed the Canadian Anti-Terrorism Act, that nation's first anti-terrorism law.[302] The United Kingdom passed the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.[303][304] New Zealand enacted the Terrorism Suppression Act 2002.[305]

In the United States, the Department of Homeland Security was created by the Homeland Security Act to coordinate domestic anti-terrorism efforts. The USA Patriot Act gave the federal government greater powers, including the authority to detain foreign terror suspects for a week without charge, to monitor telephone communications, e-mail, and Internet use by terror suspects, and to prosecute suspected terrorists without time restrictions. The FAA ordered that airplane cockpits be reinforced to prevent terrorists gaining control of planes, and assigned sky marshals to flights. Further, the Aviation and Transportation Security Act made the federal government, rather than airports, responsible for airport security. The law created the Transportation Security Administration to inspect passengers and luggage, causing long delays and concern over passenger privacy.[306] After suspected abuses of the USA Patriot Act were brought to light in June 2013 with articles about collection of American call records by the NSA and the PRISM program (see 2013 mass surveillance disclosures), Representative Jim Sensenbrenner, Republican of Wisconsin, who introduced the Patriot Act in 2001, said that the National Security Agency overstepped its bounds.[307][308]

Investigations

FBI

Immediately after the attacks, the Federal Bureau of Investigation started PENTTBOM, the largest criminal inquiry in the history of the United States. At its height, more than half of the FBI's agents worked on the investigation and followed a half-million leads.[309] The FBI concluded that there was "clear and irrefutable" evidence linking al-Qaeda and bin Laden to the attacks.[310]

File:Mohamed Atta.jpg

Mohamed Atta, an Egyptian national, was the ringleader of the hijackers.

The FBI was quickly able to identify the hijackers, including leader Mohamed Atta, when his luggage was discovered at Boston's Logan Airport. Atta had been forced to check two of his three bags due to space limitations on the 19-seat commuter flight he took to Boston.[311] Due to a new policy instituted to prevent flight delays, the luggage failed to make it aboard American Airlines Flight 11 as planned. The luggage contained the hijackers' names, assignments and al-Qaeda connections. "It had all these Arab-language (sic) papers that amounted to the Rosetta stone of the investigation", said one FBI agent.[312] Within hours of the attacks, the FBI released the names and in many cases the personal details of the suspected pilots and hijackers.[313][314] On September 27, 2001, they released photos of all 19 hijackers, along with information about possible nationalities and aliases.[315] Fifteen of the men were from Saudi Arabia, two from the United Arab Emirates, one from Egypt, and one from Lebanon.[316]

By midday, the U.S. National Security Agency and German intelligence agencies had intercepted communications pointing to Osama bin Laden.[317] Two of the hijackers were known to have travelled with a bin Laden associate to Malaysia in 2000[318] and hijacker Mohammed Atta had previously gone to Afghanistan.[319] He and others were part of a terrorist cell in Hamburg.[320] One of the members of the Hamburg cell was discovered to have been in communication with Khalid Sheik Mohammed who was identified as a member of al-Qaeda.[321]

Authorities in the United States and Britain also obtained electronic intercepts, including telephone conversations and electronic bank transfers, which indicate that Mohammed Atef, a bin Laden deputy, was a key figure in the planning of the 9/11 attacks. Intercepts were also obtained that revealed conversations that took place days before September 11 between bin Laden and an associate in Pakistan. In those conversations, the two referred to "an incident that would take place in America on, or around, September 11" and they discussed potential repercussions. In another conversation with an associate in Afghanistan, bin Laden discussed the "scale and effects of a forthcoming operation." These conversations did not specifically mention the World Trade Center or Pentagon, or other specifics.[322]

Template:Bar chart

CIA

The Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) conducted an internal review of the agency's pre-9/11 performance and was harshly critical of senior CIA officials for not doing everything possible to confront terrorism. He criticized their failure to stop two of the 9/11 hijackers, Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, as they entered the United States and their failure to share information on the two men with the FBI.[323] In May 2007, senators from both major U.S. political parties drafted legislation to make the review public. One of the backers, Senator Ron Wyden said, "The American people have a right to know what the Central Intelligence Agency was doing in those critical months before 9/11."[324]

Congressional inquiry

Main article: Joint Inquiry into Intelligence Community Activities before and after the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001

In February 2002 the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence formed a joint inquiry into the performance of the U.S. Intelligence Community.[325] Their 832 page report released in December 2002[326] detailed failings of the FBI and CIA to use available information, including about terrorists the CIA knew were in the United States, in order to disrupt the plots.[327] The joint inquiry developed its information about possible involvement of Saudi Arabian government officials from non-classified sources.[328] Nevertheless, the Bush administration demanded 28 related pages remain classified.[327] In December 2002 the inquiry's chair Bob Graham (D-FL) revealed in an interview that there was "evidence that there were foreign governments involved in facilitating the activities of at least some of the terrorists in the United States."[329] September 11 victim families were frustrated by the unanswered questions and redacted material from the Congressional inquiry and demanded an independent commission.[327] September 11 victim families,[330] members of congress[331][332] and the Saudi Arabian government are still seeking release of the documents.[333][334] In June 2016, CIA chief John Brennan says that he believes 28 redacted pages of a congressional inquiry into 9/11 will soon be made public, and that they will prove that the government of Saudi Arabia had no involvement in the September 11 attacks.[335]

In September 2016, the Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the September 11 attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.[336][337][338]

9/11 Commission

Main articles: 9/11 Commission, 9/11 Commission Report, and Criticism of the 9/11 Commission

The National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States (9/11 Commission), chaired by Thomas Kean and Lee H. Hamilton, was formed in late 2002 to prepare a thorough account of the circumstances surrounding the attacks, including preparedness for and the immediate response to the attacks.[339] On July 22, 2004, the Commission issued the 9/11 Commission Report. The report detailed the events of 9/11, found the attacks were carried out by members of al-Qaeda, and examined how security and intelligence agencies were inadequately coordinated to prevent the attacks. Formed from an independent bipartisan group of mostly former Senators, Representatives, and Governors, the commissioners explained, "We believe the 9/11 attacks revealed four kinds of failures: in imagination, policy, capabilities, and management".[340] The Commission made numerous recommendations on how to prevent future attacks, and in 2011 was dismayed that several of its recommendations had yet to be implemented.[341]

National Institute of Standards and Technology

See also: 7 World Trade Center § 9/11 and collapse
File:WTC-Wreckage-exterior shell of south tower.jpg

The exterior support columns from the lower level of the south tower remained standing after the building collapsed.

The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) investigated the collapses of the Twin Towers and 7 WTC. The investigations examined why the buildings collapsed and what fire protection measures were in place, and evaluated how fire protection systems might be improved in future construction.[342] The investigation into the collapse of 1 WTC and 2 WTC was concluded in October 2005 and that of 7 WTC was completed in August 2008.[343]

NIST found that the fireproofing on the Twin Towers' steel infrastructures was blown off by the initial impact of the planes and that, had this not occurred, the towers likely would have remained standing.[344] A 2007 study of the north tower's collapse published by researchers of Purdue University determined that, since the plane's impact had stripped off much of the structure's thermal insulation, the heat from a typical office fire would have softened and weakened the exposed girders and columns enough to initiate the collapse regardless of the number of columns cut or damaged by the impact.[345][346]

The director of the original investigation stated that, "the towers really did amazingly well. The terrorist aircraft didn't bring the buildings down; it was the fire which followed. It was proven that you could take out two thirds of the columns in a tower and the building would still stand."[347] The fires weakened the trusses supporting the floors, making the floors sag. The sagging floors pulled on the exterior steel columns causing the exterior columns to bow inward. With the damage to the core columns, the buckling exterior columns could no longer support the buildings, causing them to collapse. Additionally, the report found the towers' stairwells were not adequately reinforced to provide adequate emergency escape for people above the impact zones.[348] NIST concluded that uncontrolled fires in 7 WTC caused floor beams and girders to heat and subsequently "caused a critical support column to fail, initiating a fire-induced progressive collapse that brought the building down".[343]

Rebuilding

File:OneWorldTradeCenter.jpg

Rebuilt One World Trade Center nearing completion in July 2013

Further information: World Trade Center site, World Trade Center (2001–present), Construction of One World Trade Center, and One World Trade Center

On the day of the attacks, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani stated: "We will rebuild. We're going to come out of this stronger than before, politically stronger, economically stronger. The skyline will be made whole again."[349]

The damaged section of the Pentagon was rebuilt and occupied within a year of the attacks.[350] The temporary World Trade Center PATH station opened in late 2003 and construction of the new 7 World Trade Center was completed in 2006. Work on rebuilding the main World Trade Center site was delayed until late 2006 when leaseholder Larry Silverstein and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey agreed on financing.[351] The construction of One World Trade Center began on April 27, 2006, and reached its full height on May 20, 2013. The spire was installed atop the building at that date, putting 1 WTC's height at 1,776 feet (541 m) and thus claiming the title of the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere.[352] One WTC finished construction and opened on November 3, 2014.[6][353]

On the World Trade Center site, three more office towers are expected to be built one block east of where the original towers stood. Construction has begun on all three of these towers.[354]

Memorials

Main article: Memorials and services for the September 11 attacks
File:September 11th Tribute in Light from Bayonne, New Jersey.jpg

The Tribute in Light on September 11, 2014, on the thirteenth anniversary of the attacks, seen from Bayonne, New Jersey. The tallest building in the picture is the new One World Trade Center.

In the days immediately following the attacks, many memorials and vigils were held around the world, and photographs of the dead and missing were posted around Ground Zero. A witness described being unable to "get away from faces of innocent victims who were killed. Their pictures are everywhere, on phone booths, street lights, walls of subway stations. Everything reminded me of a huge funeral, people quiet and sad, but also very nice. Before, New York gave me a cold feeling; now people were reaching out to help each other."[355]

One of the first memorials was the Tribute in Light, an installation of 88 searchlights at the footprints of the World Trade Center towers.[356] In New York, the World Trade Center Site Memorial Competition was held to design an appropriate memorial on the site.[357] The winning design, Reflecting Absence, was selected in August 2006, and consists of a pair of reflecting pools in the footprints of the towers, surrounded by a list of the victims' names in an underground memorial space.[358]

The Pentagon Memorial was completed and opened to the public on the seventh anniversary of the attacks in 2008.[359][360] It consists of a landscaped park with 184 benches facing the Pentagon.[361] When the Pentagon was repaired in 2001–2002, a private chapel and indoor memorial were included, located at the spot where Flight 77 crashed into the building.[362]

In Shanksville, a permanent Flight 93 National Memorial is planned to include a sculpted grove of trees forming a circle around the crash site, bisected by the plane's path, while wind chimes will bear the names of the victims.[363] A temporary memorial is located 500 yards (457 m) from the crash site.[364] New York City firefighters donated a cross made of steel from the World Trade Center and mounted on top of a platform shaped like the Pentagon.[365] It was installed outside the firehouse on August 25, 2008.[366] Many other permanent memorials are elsewhere. Scholarships and charities have been established by the victims' families, and by many other organizations and private figures.[367]

On every anniversary, in New York City, the names of the victims who died there are read out against a background of somber music. The President of the United States attends a memorial service at the Pentagon,[368] and asks Americans to observe Patriot Day with a moment of silence. Smaller services are held in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, which are usually attended by the President's spouse.

See also

Template:Wikipedia books

  • Alleged Saudi role in September 11 attacks
  • Bojinka plot – plot by Ramzi Yousef and Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, foiled in 1995, to attack multiple airliners and crash a plane into the CIA headquarters
  • Federal Express Flight 705 – 1994 cockpit attack
  • Outline of the September 11 attacks
  • September 11th Victim Compensation Fund
  • Terrorism in the United States
  • The 28 Pages

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Notes

  1. The expression "9/11" is pronounced "nine eleven". The slash is not part of the pronunciation. The name is frequently used in British English as well as in American English, even though the dating conventions differ.

References

Citations

  1. "How much did the September 11 terrorist attack cost America?". 2004. Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
  2. 2.0 2.1 Matthew J. Morgan (August 4, 2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed Everything?. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 222. ISBN 0-230-60763-2.
  3. Carter, Shan; Cox, A. "One 9/11 Tally: $3.3 Trillion". Retrieved September 14, 2015.
  4. Congress. Congressional Record, Vol. 148, Pt. 7, May 23, 2002 to June 12, 2002. Government Printing Office. p. 9909. ISBN 978-0-16-076125-6. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
  5. 5.0 5.1 "Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11". CBC News. October 29, 2004. Retrieved September 1, 2011. Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden appeared in a new message aired on an Arabic TV station Friday night, for the first time claiming direct responsibility for the 2001 attacks against the United States.
  6. 6.0 6.1 Moore, Jack (November 3, 2014). "World Trade Center Re-opens as Tallest Building in America". International Business Times. One World Trade Center. Retrieved September 11, 2015.
  7. Smith, Aaron (November 3, 2014). "One World Trade Center opens today". CNN Money. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
  8. "Al-Qaeda's origins and links". BBC News. July 20, 2004. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  9. Gunaratna (2002), pp. 23–33.
  10. "Bin Laden's fatwā (1996)". PBS. Archived from the original on October 31, 2001. Retrieved May 29, 2014. Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  11. 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014. Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  12. "Pakistan inquiry orders Bin Laden family to remain". BBC. July 6, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  13. 13.0 13.1 "Full transcript of bin Laden's speech". Al Jazeera. November 2, 2004. Archived from the original on June 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  14. "Pakistan to Demand Taliban Give Up Bin Laden as Iran Seals Afghan Border". Fox News Channel. September 16, 2001. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  15. "Bin Laden on tape: Attacks 'benefited Islam greatly'". CNN. December 14, 2001. Archived from the original on December 27, 2007. Retrieved November 24, 2013. Reveling in the details of the fatal attacks, bin Laden brags in Arabic that he knew about them beforehand and says the destruction went beyond his hopes. He says the attacks "benefited Islam greatly". Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  16. "Transcript: Bin Laden video excerpts". BBC News. December 27, 2001. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  17. Michael, Maggie (October 29, 2004). "Bin Laden, in statement to U.S. people, says he ordered Sept. 11 attacks". SignOnSanDiego.com. Associated Press. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  18. "Al-Jazeera: Bin Laden tape obtained in Pakistan". MSNBC. October 30, 2004. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  19. "Bin Laden 9/11 planning video aired". CBC News. September 7, 2006. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  20. Clewley, Robin (September 27, 2001). "How Osama Cracked FBI's Top 10". Wired. Archived from the original on May 26, 2008. Retrieved May 29, 2014. Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  21. "USAMA BIN LADEN". FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved September 10, 2011.
  22. Baker, Peter; Cooper, Helene (May 1, 2011). "Bin Laden Is Dead, President Obama Says". New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  23. Cooper, Helene (May 1, 2011). "Obama Announces Killing of Osama bin Laden". New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  24. "'We left out nuclear targets, for now'". The Guardian. London. March 4, 2003. Archived from the original on January 23, 2008. Retrieved September 3, 2011. Yosri Fouda of the Arabic television channel al-Jazeera is the only journalist to have interviewed Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the al-Qaeda military commander arrested at the weekend. Here he describes the two-day encounter with him and his fellow organiser of September 11, Ramzi bin al- Shibh: […] Summoning every thread of experience and courage, I looked Khalid in the eye and asked: 'Did you do it?' The reference to September 11 was implicit. Khalid responded with little fanfare: 'I am the head of the al-Qaeda military committee,' he began, 'and Ramzi is the coordinator of the Holy Tuesday operation. And yes, we did it.' Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  25. Leonard, Tom; Spillius, Alex (October 10, 2008). "Alleged 9/11 mastermind wants to confess to plot". London: Telegraph. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  26. 26.0 26.1 "September 11 suspect 'confesses'". Al Jazeera. March 15, 2007. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  27. 9/11 Commission Report (2004), p. 147.
  28. "White House power grabs". The Washington Times. August 26, 2009. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  29. Van Voris, Bob; Hurtado, Patricia (April 4, 2011). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Terror Indictment Unsealed, Dismissed". BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on April 17, 2011. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  30. Shannon, Elaine; Weisskopf, Michael (March 24, 2003). "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Names Names". TIME. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  31. Nichols, Michelle (May 8, 2008). "US judge orders CIA to turn over 'torture' memo-ACLU". Reuters. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  32. "Key 9/11 suspect 'admits guilt'". BBC News. March 15, 2007. Retrieved April 10, 2012.
  33. "Substitution for Testimony of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed" (PDF). United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. 2006. p. 24. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  34. "Spain jails 18 al-Qaeda operatives". The Age. Melbourne. September 27, 2005. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  35. Naughton, Philippe (June 1, 2006). "Spanish court quashes 9/11 conviction". The Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  36. Summers and Swan (2011), p. 489n.
  37. Youssef, Maamoun (May 24, 2006). "Bin Laden: Moussaoui Not Linked to 9/11". Washington Post. Associated Press.
  38. Summers and Swan (2011), p. 542n.
  39. "The Hamburg connection". BBC News. August 19, 2005.
  40. "Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell Archived August 16, 2009, at the Wayback Machine". 9/11 Commission.
  41. Gunarathna, pp. 61–62.
  42. bin Laden, Osama (November 24, 2002). "Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'". The Observer. London. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  43. 43.0 43.1 * Mearsheimer (2007), p. 67.
    • Kushner (2003), p. 389.
    • Murdico (2003), p. 64.
    • Kelley (2006), p. 207.
    • Ibrahim (2007), p. 276.
    • Berner (2007), p. 80.
  44. Plotz, David (2001) What Does Osama Bin Laden Want? Archived November 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Slate
  45. * Plotz, David (2001) What Does Osama Bin Laden Want?, Slate
  46. * "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". aljazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  47. "Full transcript of bin Laden's "Letter to America"". The Guardian. London. November 24, 2002. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  48. bin Laden, Osama. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on January 1, 2016. Retrieved April 10, 2012. So I shall talk to you about the story behind those events and shall tell you truthfully about the moments in which the decision was taken, for you to consider Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  49. Bergen (2001), p. 3.
  50. 50.0 50.1 50.2 "1998 Al Qaeda fatwā". Fas.org. February 23, 1998. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  51. 51.0 51.1 Yusufzai, Rahimullah (September 26, 2001). "Face to face with Osama". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  52. Pape, Robert A. (2005). Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8129-7338-0.
  53. See also the 1998 Al-Qaeda fatwā: "The ruling to kill the Americans and their allies – civilians and military – is an individual duty for every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it, in order to liberate the al-Aqsa Mosque and the holy mosque [Mecca] from their grip, and in order for their armies to move out of all the lands of Islam, defeated and unable to threaten any Muslim." Quoted from "Al Qaeda's Second Fatwa". PBS NewsHour. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on November 28, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2014. Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  54. Summers and Swan (2011), pp. 211, 506n.
  55. Lawrence (2005), p. 239.
  56. "Full transcript of bin Ladin's speech". Al Jazeera. November 4, 2004. Retrieved August 24, 2016.
  57. In his taped broadcast from January 2010, Bin Laden said "Our attacks against you [the United States] will continue as long as U.S. support for Israel continues. … The message sent to you with the attempt by the hero Nigerian Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab is a confirmation of our previous message conveyed by the heroes of September 11". Quoted from "Bin Laden: Attacks on U.S. to go on as long as it supports Israel" Archived December 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, in Haaretz.com
  58. Rockmore, Tom (April 21, 2011). Before and After 9/11: A Philosophical Examination of Globalization, Terror. ISBN 978-1-4411-1892-9. Retrieved September 11, 2011.
  59. Bernard Lewis, 2004. In Bernard Lewis's 2004 book The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror, he argues that animosity toward the West is best understood with the decline of the once powerful Ottoman empire, compounded by the import of western ideas — Arab socialism, Arab liberalism and Arab secularism. During the past three centuries, according to this interpretation, the Islamic world has lost its dominance and its position of leadership in the world, and has fallen behind both the modern West and the rapidly modernizing Orient. The resulting widening gap poses increasingly severe problems, both practical and emotional, for which the rulers, thinkers, and rebels of Islam have not yet found effective answers.
  60. In an essay titled "The spirit of terrorism", Jean Baudrillard described 9/11 as the first global event that "questions the very process of globalization". Baudrillard. "The spirit of terrorism". Retrieved June 26, 2011.
  61. In an essay entitled "Somebody Else's Civil War", Michael Scott Doran argues the attacks are best understood as part of a religious conflict within the Muslim world and that Bin Laden's followers "consider themselves an island of true believers surrounded by a sea of iniquity". Hoping that U.S. retaliation would unite the faithful against the West, bin Laden sought to spark revolutions in Arab nations and elsewhere. Doran argues the Osama bin Laden videos attempt to provoke a visceral reaction in the Middle East and ensure that Muslim citizens would react as violently as possible to an increase in U.S. involvement in their region. ("Somebody Else's Civil War". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved December 5, 2009. Reprinted in Hoge, James F.; Rose, Gideon (2005). Understanding the War on Terror. New York: Norton. pp. 72–75. ISBN 978-0-87609-347-4. )
  62. In The Osama bin Laden I Know, Peter Bergen argues the attacks were part of a plan to cause the United States to increase its military and cultural presence in the Middle East, thereby forcing Muslims to confront the idea of a non-Muslim government and to eventually establish conservative Islamic governments in the region.(Bergen (2006), p. 229.)
  63. "Suspect 'reveals 9/11 planning'". BBC News. September 22, 2003. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  64. 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 9/11 Commission Report, Chapter 5, pp ??
  65. Lichtblau, Eric (March 20, 2003). "Bin Laden Chose 9/11 Targets, Al Qaeda Leader Says". New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  66. Wright (2006), p. 308.
  67. Bergen (2006), p. 283.
  68. Wright (2006), pp. 309–15.
  69. McDermott (2005), pp. 191–92.
  70. Bernstein, Richard (September 10, 2002). "On Path to the U.S. Skies, Plot Leader Met bin Laden". New York Times. Retrieved September 3, 2011.
  71. Wright (2006), pp. 304–07.
  72. Wright (2006), p. 302.
  73. Jessee 2006, p. 371.
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  77. Template:Cite document
  78. Wright 2006, pp. 310-312.
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  80. Wright 2006, p. 344.
  81. Clarke 2004, pp. 236-237. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFClarke2004 (help)
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  84. Wright 2006, pp. 340-343.
  85. Wright 2006, pp. 352-353.
  86. Wright 2006, p. 350.
  87. Yitzhak 2016, p. 218.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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