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| File:1988 Winter Olympics logo.svg Emblem of the 1988 Winter Olympics[lower-alpha 1][1] | |
| Host city | Calgary, Canada |
|---|---|
| Motto | Come Together in Calgary (French: Rassemblez-vous à Calgary) |
| Nations | 57 |
| Athletes | 1,423 (1,122 men, 301 women) |
| Events | 46 in 6 sports (10 disciplines) |
| Opening | February 13, 1988 |
| Closing | February 28, 1988 |
| Opened by | Governor General Jeanne Sauvé |
| Cauldron | Robyn Perry |
| Stadium | McMahon Stadium |
Winter Summer | |
Template:1988 Winter Olympics
The 1988 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XV Olympic Winter Games (French: Les XVes Jeux olympiques d'hiver), was a Winter Olympics multi-sport event celebrated in and around Calgary, Alberta, Canada between February 13 and 28, 1988. The host city was selected in 1981 over Falun, Sweden and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. Most events took place in Calgary while several skiing events were held in the mountain resorts of Nakiska and Canmore, west of the city.
A then-record 57 nations competed and 1,423 athletes participated. The Soviet Union won the most medals with 29, followed by East Germany with 25. As it had in Montreal in 1976, Canada again failed to win a gold medal in an official medal event as the host nation. Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip were individual medal leaders, capturing three gold medals apiece. The games are also remembered for the "heroic failure" of British ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards, and the Winter Olympic début of the Jamaica national bobsled team, both of which would be subjects of major feature films about their participation in the games.
The Calgary games were at the time one of the most expensive Olympics ever held, but the organizing committee turned record television and sponsorship revenue into a net surplus that was used to maintain the facilities built for the Olympics and develop the Calgary region into the heart of Canada's elite winter sports program. The five purpose-built venues continue to be used in their original functions, and have helped the country develop into one of the top nations in Winter Olympic competition; Canada more than quintupled the five medals it won in Calgary at the 2010 games, the next Winter Olympics hosted on Canadian soil in Vancouver.
Host city selection[]
| City | Country | Round 1 | Round 2 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Calgary |  Canada |
35 | 48 |
| Falun |  Sweden |
25 | 31 |
| Cortina d'Ampezzo |  Italy |
18 | — |
Calgary made its fourth attempt at hosting the Winter Games when it bid for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games, which also marked Canada's seventh bid for the Winter Olympic Games. Montreal made the first Canadian bid for the Winter Games in 1956, and Vancouver made attempts to host the 1976 and 1980 Games. Calgary, alongside neighbouring Banff, under the leadership of the Calgary Olympic Development Association (CODA), submitted bids for the Winter Games in 1964, 1968, and 1972.[3][4][5] However, CODA went dormant in 1966 after losing three consecutive bids. In 1978, Frank King and Bob Niven of Calgary's Booster Club took over the organization's leadership and revived CODA.[6][5][7][8] King and Niven consulted former Olympic Sprinter and CODA founder, Ernie McCullough, and politician Arthur Ryan Smith, who had worked on previous bids, for guidance on the project.[4]
In October 1979, CODA secured the Canadian Olympic Association's (COA) support for Canada's official bid to host the 1988 Winter Olympics, winning over a competing bid by Vancouver with a vote of 27–9.[5][9] Calgary's bid was ambitious, as the city lacked winter sports facilities and everything would have to be built from scratch. CODA proposed constructing all new venues, arguing that if Calgary was awarded the Games, Canada's inventory of training facilities would increase significantly.[5] The Vancouver organizing group argued that Calgary's bid represented a "Big-ticket Games" idea, and estimated to cost nearly three times what Vancouver was expected to pay to host the Winter Olympics.[5][10] Vancouver's bid was based on already developed infrastructure, including the Pacific Coliseum and Whistler Blackcomb, which later served as the foundation for the successful 2010 Winter Olympics bid and the later 2030 Winter Olympic bid.[11]
CODA then spent two years building local support for the megaproject, selling Template:Currency memberships to approximately 80,000 of Calgary's 600,000 residents.[2][5][12] Calgary also secured Template:Currency million in funding from the federal (Template:Currency million) and provincial governments.[7] Some civic leaders, including then-mayor Ralph Klein, travelled around the world to lobby IOC delegates.[7] The arrival of the National Hockey League's (NHL) newly relocated Calgary Flames from Atlanta in 1980 drove the city to construct a new arena that would later be named the Olympic Saddledome, demonstrating to the IOC Calgary's determination to host the Winter Olympics.[13]
The Olympic bid itself emphasized the cultural and natural beauty of Calgary, Alberta and surrounding areas, as a perfect asset for hosting the Winter Olympics. The city was marketed as a capitalist, oil-driven, and modern economy that also had mountain playgrounds, extensive wilderness, and rodeo culture.[14] The two seemingly contradictory images were brought together, as part of an extensive and diverse lobbying program.[14]
Calgary was one of three cities and towns that bid officially for the 1988 Winter Olympics. The other two were Falun, Sweden, and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy.[5] The Italian town (comune) had before hosted the 1956 Winter Olympics.[7] The vote was held on September 30, 1981, in Baden-Baden, West Germany, during the 84th IOC Session and 11th Olympic Congress.[5] After Cortina d'Ampezzo was eliminated in the first round of balloting, Calgary won in the second and final round of balloting over Falun, by a margin of 17 votes.[2] The announcement of CODA's victory sent the delegates in Baden-Baden and Calgary residents into singing and dancing.[15] It also made then Alberta premier, Peter Lougheed, burst openly into tears in front of the cameras. Later, Ralph Klein sang a rendition of Mac Davis' It's Hard to Be Humble.[16] It was the first Winter Olympics awarded to Canada and the second Olympic Games overall, following the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.[17] Cortina d'Ampezzo, along with Milan, would get to host the 2026 Winter Olympics.[18] The town will be the fourth to host the Winter Olympics twice, along with St. Moritz (1928 and 1948), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980), and Innsbruck (1964 and 1976).
Olympic historians, John E. Findling and Kimberly D. Pelle noted that once the Games were awarded to Calgary, the cultural and community aspects of the bid were pushed aside by the newly formed Calgary Olympic organizing committee called the Olympiques Calgary Olympics '88 (OCO'88). It then proceeded to take on a "vigorous, resilient, and impersonal corporate business strategy" toward the planning and operation of the Games.[14]
Venues[]
The IIHF called the Olympic Saddledome "the finest international rink in the world". It is also the largest hockey arena ever used at the Olympics with a capacity of 20,016 in 1988.[19]
McMahon Stadium, Calgary's primary outdoor facility, was the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies, the first time in 28 years that the same venue hosted both events.[20] Three other existing venues served as secondary facilities: The Max Bell Centre hosted the demonstration events of curling and short track speed skating. The Father David Bauer Olympic Arena hosted some ice hockey matches, as did the Stampede Corral, which also played host to some figure skating events.[20] Though the Corral did not support the size of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)'s standard ice surface, the Calgary Organizing Committee (Olympiques Calgary Olympics '88 or OCO'88) was able to convince the IIHF to sanction the arena in exchange for a $1.2 million payment.[21]
The Games' five primary venues were all purpose-built however, at significant cost.[22] The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating. Located at Stampede Park, the facility was expected to cost $83 million but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $100 million.[20] The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary. It was the first fully enclosed 400-metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice-melting chinook winds.[21] Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during the Games, resulting in the facility earning praise as "the fastest ice on Earth".[20] Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled, luge, ski jumping and freestyle skiing. It was the most expensive facility built for the games, costing $200 million.[20]
Two facilities were built west of Calgary, in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The Canmore Nordic Centre was 90-percent funded by the Province of Alberta at a cost of $17.3 million. Located near the community of Canmore it was built with the intention that it would become a year-round recreation destination for Albertans. The facility hosted cross-country skiing, biathlon and Nordic combined events.[23] Nakiska (Cree for "to meet") was the most controversial facility built.[21] The province paid the $25 million construction cost for the alpine skiing facility on Mount Allan, about an hour west of Calgary.[24] It was initially criticized for the location's relative lack of snow, requiring artificial snow making machines to be installed, and for an initial lack of technical difficulty.[21] International Ski Federation officials proposed modifications to the courses that ultimately met with praise from competitors.[25]
Cost and cost overrun[]
The Oxford Olympics Study established the outturn cost of the Calgary 1988 Winter Olympics at USD 1.1 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 65% in real terms.[26] This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are not included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Calgary 1988 compares with costs of USD 2.5 billion and a cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, and costs of USD 21.9 billion and a cost overrun of 289% for Sochi 2014, the latter being the most costly Olympics to date. Average cost for Winter Games since 1960 is USD 3.1 billion, average cost overrun is 142%.
Preparations[]
Television[]
The Calgary Winter Olympics were the first winter games to earn a significant television revenue base; where the 1980 Lake Placid Games generated only US$20.7 million worldwide, OCO'88 generated $324.9 million in broadcast rights.[27] The overwhelming majority of television revenues came from the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), which agreed in 1984 to pay $309 million for American television rights, over three times the $91.5 million it paid for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo.[28] The deal, at the time the highest amount ever paid for a sporting event, allowed organizers to announce the Games would be debt-free.[29] The CTV Television Network paid C$4.5 million for Canadian rights and to act as the host broadcaster,[30] It was also on CBC. While western European nations paid US$5.7 million combined.[31]
OCO'88 made several alterations to the Olympic program as part of efforts to ensure value for its broadcast partners. Premier events, including ice hockey and figure skating, were scheduled for prime time and the Games were lengthened to 16 days from the previous 12 to ensure three weekends of coverage.[32] However, a significant downturn in advertising revenue for sporting events resulted in ABC forecasting significant financial losses on the Games. Calgary organizers appreciated their fortunate timing in signing the deal. King described the timing of the contract with ABC as "the passing of the sun and the moon at the right time for Calgary."[31] ABC lost an estimated $60 million, and broadcast rights to the 1992 Winter Olympics were later sold to the CBS network for $243 million, a 20% reduction compared to Calgary.[33]
Ticketing controversies[]
A series of ticket-related scandals plagued the organizing committee as the Games approached, resulting in widespread public anger.[34] Demand for tickets was high, particularly for the premier events which had sold out a year in advance. Residents had been promised that only 10 percent of tickets would go to "Olympic insiders", IOC officials and sponsors, but OCO'88 was later forced to admit that up to 50 percent of seats to top events had gone to insiders.[21] The organizing committee, which was subsequently chastised by mayor Klein for running a "closed shop", admitted that it had failed to properly communicate the obligations it had to supply IOC officials and sponsors with priority tickets.[35] These events were preceded by OCO'88's ticketing manager being charged with theft and fraud after he sent modified ticket request forms to Americans that asked them to pay in United States funds rather than Canadian and to return them to his company's post office box rather than that of the organizing committee.[36]
Organizers attempted to respond to public concern by asking sponsors to consider reducing their orders and by paying $1.5 million to add 2,600 seats to the Saddledome. King also noted that the Calgary Games offered a then-record 1.7 million tickets for sale, three times the amount available at Sarajevo or Lake Placid, and that 82 percent of them were going to Calgarians.[35] By their start, a Winter Games' record of over 1.4 million tickets had been sold,[37] a figure that eclipsed the previous three Winter Games combined.[38]
Community[]
Hidy and Howdy were the mascots of the Calgary Games.
The city, which already had a strong volunteering tradition with the annual Calgary Stampede, also relied heavily on volunteers to run the Olympics. Over 22,000 people signed up to fill 9,400 positions, no matter how inglorious: doctors, lawyers and executives offered to clean manure dropped by horses at the opening ceremonies.[39] Many residents participated in a "Homestay" program, opening their homes to visitors from around the world and renting rooms to those who could not stay in a hotel.[21]
Klein was among those who felt it necessary that the event be community driven, a decision which allowed the city's welcoming spirit to manifest.[40] The Games' mascots, Hidy and Howdy, were designed to evoke images of "western hospitality".[41] The smiling, cowboy-themed polar bears were popular across Canada. Played by a team of students from Bishop Carroll High School, the sister-brother pair made up to 300 appearances per month in the lead up to the Games.[42] From their introduction at the closing ceremonies of the Sarajevo Games in 1984 until their retirement at the conclusion of the Calgary Games, the pair made about 50,000 appearances.[43] The iconic mascots graced signs welcoming travelers to Calgary for nearly two decades until they were replaced in 2007.[44]
Finances[]
Held at a price of C$829 million, the Calgary Olympics cost more to stage than any previous Games, summer or winter.[37] The high cost was anticipated, as organizers were aware at the outset of their bid that most facilities would have to be constructed.[10] The venues, constructed primarily with public money, were designed to have lasting use beyond the Games and were planned to become the home of several of Canada's national winter sports teams.[45] Despite the high costs, OCO'88 anticipated a C$36 million surplus, though the organizing committee counted only its own expenditures and excluded government spending.[46]
The Games were a major economic boon for the city which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid-1980s.[38][46] A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11,100 man-years of employment and generate C$450-million in salaries and wages.[47] In its post-Games report, OCO'88 estimated the Olympics created C$1.4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during the 1980s, 70 percent within Alberta, as a result of capital spending, increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities.[48]
Torch relay[]
The Olympic torch on display
The 1988 Olympic torch relay began on November 15, 1987, when the torch was lit at Olympia and Greek runner Stellos Bisbas began what was called "the longest torch run in history".[49] The flame arrived in St. John's, Newfoundland on the Atlantic Ocean two days later and over 88 days traveled west across Canada. It passed through most major cities, north to the Arctic Ocean at Inuvik, Northwest Territories, then west to the Pacific Ocean at Victoria, British Columbia before returning east to Alberta, and finally Calgary.[50] The torch covered a distance of 18,000 kilometres (11,000 mi), the greatest distance for a torch relay in Olympic history until the 2000 Sydney Games, and a sharp contrast to the 1976 Montreal Games when the relay covered only 775 kilometres (482 mi).[51]
Relay sponsor Petro Canada issued entry forms allowing citizens the chance to become one of 6,214 people to carry the torch for 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). Organizers, who initially expected to receive 250,000 entries, were inundated with over 6.6 million forms and called the response a sign that the Olympics had "fired the imagination of Canada".[52] The relay, called "Share the Flame", also saw the torch travel by boat, snowmobile and dogsled.[53]
Map of torch relay, starting from St. John's in the East. (Key: land, air.)
The relay was subject to peaceful protests by members and supporters of the Lubicon Cree First Nation at several stops in Ontario and Alberta in protest of ongoing land claim disputes between the band and the Crown, as well as discontent over an exhibit at Calgary's Glenbow Museum called "The Spirit Sings" that featured numerous artifacts stolen from native land.[53]
The identity of the final torchbearer who would light the Olympic cauldron was one of OCO'88's most closely guarded secrets.[54] The relay began at St. John's with Barbara Ann Scott and Fred Hayward representing Canada's past Olympians, and ended with Ken Read and Cathy Priestner carrying the torch into McMahon Stadium representing the nation's current Olympians. They then stopped to acknowledge the contribution of para-athlete Rick Hansen and his "Man in Motion" tour [55] before handing the torch to 12-year-old Robyn Perry, an aspiring figure skater who was selected to represent future Olympians, to light the cauldron.[54] The choice of Perry was an unusual departure from most Games as the cauldron has typically been lit by a famous individual or group from the host nation.[56]
Constructed of maple and aluminum, the torch was designed to remain lit despite the sometimes adverse conditions of Canadian winters.[57] It was modeled after the Calgary Tower, constructed entirely of Canadian materials and designed to be light enough for the relay runners to carry comfortably.[58] The Calgary Tower itself was retrofitted to install a cauldron at its peak and was lit for the duration of the Games, one of several "replica cauldrons" constructed at Olympic venues throughout Calgary and Canmore.[59]
Event highlights[]
There were 46 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).
| Events of the 1988 Olympic Winter Games | |
|---|---|
|
The 1988 Winter Games began on February 13 with a $10 million opening ceremony that featured 5,500 performers,[60] an aerial flyover by the Royal Canadian Air Force's Snowbirds,[61] the parade of nations and the release of 1,000 homing pigeons.[60] Canadian composer David Foster performed the instrumental theme song ("Winter Games") and its vocal counterpart ("Can't You Feel It?"),[62] while internationally recognized Canadian folk/country musicians Gordon Lightfoot and Ian Tyson were among the featured performers.[63] Governor General Jeanne Sauvé opened the Games on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II as an estimated 1.5 billion people watched the ceremony.[64][65]
Katarina Witt won gold in women's figure skating
The weather was a dominant story throughout much of the Games, as strong chinook winds that brought daily temperatures as high as 17 °C (63 °F) wreaked havoc on the schedules for outdoor events. Events were delayed when winds were deemed unsafe for competitors and organizers used artificial snow making equipment to ensure skiing venues were properly prepared.[66] It was the first time in Olympic history that alpine events were held on artificial snow.[67] The Games were also marred by the death of the Austrian ski team's doctor, Joerg Oberhammer, on February 25 after a collision with another skier sent him crashing into a snow grooming machine at Nakiska, crushing and killing him instantly. The incident was ruled an accident.[68]
The top individual competitors at the Olympics were Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen and Dutch speed skater Yvonne van Gennip as they each won three gold medals.[67] Italy's Alberto Tomba won gold in two skiing events, his first of five career Olympic medals en route to becoming the first alpine skier to win medals at three Winter Games.[69] East Germany's Katarina Witt defended her 1984 gold medal in women's figure skating, capturing a second gold in Calgary.[69] Her compatriot Christa Rothenburger won the gold medal in the 1000 metre race in speed skating, then went on to win a silver medal in the team sprint cycling event at the 1988 Summer Games to become the only person in Olympic history to win medals at both Olympic Games in the same year.[67] The Soviet Union won gold in hockey as Scandinavian neighbours Finland and Sweden took silver and bronze, respectively.[70]
As it had in 1976, Canada again failed to win an official gold medal as the host of an Olympic Games.[71] Canadians won two gold medals in demonstration events, including by Sylvie Daigle as one of her five medals in short-track speed skating.[72] Canada's top official performances came in figure skating where Brian Orser and Elizabeth Manley each won silver medals. Promoted by the media as the "Battle of the Brians", the competition between Orser and American rival Brian Boitano was the marquee event of the Games. Boitano won the gold medal over Orser by only one-tenth of a point.[73] Manley was not viewed as a medal contender, but skated the greatest performance of her career to come within a fraction of Witt's gold medal winning score.[69]
American speed skater Dan Jansen's personal tragedy was one of the more poignant events of the Games as he skated the 500 metre race mere hours after his sister Jane died of leukemia.[74] A gold medal favourite, Jansen chose to compete as he felt it is what his sister would have wanted. Viewers around the world witnessed his heartbreak as he fell and crashed into the outer wall in the first quarter of his heat.[75] In the 1000 metre race four days later, Jansen was on a world record pace when he again fell. After failing again in Albertville, Jansen finally won a gold medal at the 1994 Lillehamer Games.[76]
The Netherlands' Yvonne van Gennip (left) won three gold medals in Calgary
One of the most popular athletes from the games was British ski jumper Eddie "The Eagle" Edwards, who gained infamy by placing last in both the 70 and 90 metre events finishing 70 and 53 points behind his next closest competitor, respectively.[69][77] Edwards' "heroic failure" made him an instant celebrity; he went from earning £6,000 per year as a plasterer before the Games to making £10,000 per hour per appearance afterward.[78] Left embarrassed by the spectacle he created, the International Ski Federation altered the rules following Calgary to eliminate each nation's right to send at least one athlete and set minimum competition standards for future events.[79] Regardless, the President of the Organizing Committee, Frank King, playfully saluted Edwards' unorthodox sporting legacy, which would also be commemorated with a 2016 feature film, Eddie the Eagle.
The Jamaican bobsleigh team, making their nation's Winter Olympic debut, was also popular in Calgary.[69] The team was the brainchild of a pair of Americans who recruited individuals with strong sprinting ability from the Jamaican military to form the team.[80] Dudley Stokes and Michael White finished the two-man event in 30th place out of 41 competitors and launched the Jamaican team into worldwide fame.[69] The pair, along with Devon Harris and Chris Stokes crashed in the four man event, but were met with cheers from the crowd as they pushed their sled across the finish line.[80] Their odyssey was made into the 1993 movie Cool Runnings, a largely fictionalized comedy by Walt Disney Pictures.[81]
Games[]
Participating National Olympic Committees[]
A record 57 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) entered athletes at the 1988 Calgary Olympics, 8 more than appeared at any previous Olympic Winter Games.[82] 1,423 athletes participated in 46 events: 1,122 men and 301 women.[83] Fiji, Guam, Guatemala, Jamaica, the Netherlands Antilles and the Virgin Islands had their Winter Olympics debut.
| Participating National Olympic Committees[a] |
|---|
|
Calendar[]
In the following calendar for the 1988 Winter Olympic Games, each blue box indicates that an event competition, such as a qualification round, was held on that day. The yellow boxes represent days during which medal-awarding finals for a sport were held with the number in these boxes representing the number of finals that were contested on that day.[84]
| OC | Opening ceremony | ● | Event competitions | 1 | Event finals | CC | Closing ceremony |
| February | 13th Sat |
14th Sun |
15th Mon |
16th Tue |
17th Wed |
18th Thu |
19th Fri |
20th Sat |
21st Sun |
22nd Mon |
23rd Tue |
24th Wed |
25th Thu |
26th Fri |
27th Sat |
28th Sun |
Events | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| File:Olympic Rings Icon.svg Ceremonies | OC | CC | ||||||||||||||||
| File:Alpine skiing pictogram.svg Alpine skiing | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | |||||
| File:Biathlon pictogram.svg Biathlon | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | ||||||||||||||
| File:Bobsleigh pictogram.svg Bobsleigh | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||
| File:Cross country skiing pictogram.svg Cross country skiing | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 8 | |||||||||
| File:Figure skating pictogram.svg Figure skating | ● | 1 | ● | ● | 1 | ● | ● | 1 | ● | ● | 1 | 4 | ||||||
| File:Ice hockey pictogram.svg Ice hockey | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 1 | 1 | |
| File:Luge pictogram.svg Luge | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | 3 | ||||||||||||
| File:Nordic combined pictogram.svg Nordic combined | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||
| File:Ski jumping pictogram.svg Ski jumping | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | ||||||||||||||
| File:Speed skating pictogram.svg Speed skating | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | |||||||
Medal table[]
A set of medals from the Games on display at the Scotiabank Saddledome in Calgary.
| 1 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 11 | 9 | 9 | 29 |
| 2 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 9 | 10 | 6 | 25 |
| 3 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 5 | 5 | 5 | 15 |
| 4 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 4 | 1 | 2 | 7 |
| 5 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 4 | 0 | 2 | 6 |
| 6 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 3 | 5 | 2 | 10 |
| 7 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 3 | 2 | 2 | 7 |
| 8 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 2 | 4 | 2 | 8 |
| 9 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 2 | 1 | 3 | 6 |
| 10 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 |
| 13 | Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'Module:Country alias/data' not found. | 0 | 2 | 3 | 5 |
Legacy[]
Canada Olympic Park in 2006
Prior to Calgary, the Winter Olympics were viewed as a second-rate event compared to their summer counterpart, so much so that the IOC had at one point considered eliminating them entirely.[32] Few cities bid on the Winter Games due to challenges faced in generating revenue.[85] In its bid for the Games, CODA convinced the IOC that it could not only generate enough revenue to turn a profit, but enough of one to ensure a lasting legacy of winter sport development.[32] Organizers followed the lead of their counterparts in Los Angeles for the 1984 Summer Olympics, attracting a large television contract in the United States and was the first host city to benefit from a change in the IOC's strategy on corporate sponsorship.[85] The Calgary Games attracted support from over two dozen major Canadian and multinational corporations, generating millions of dollars in revenues.[30]
Many program changes were made in Calgary to grow the appeal of the Winter Games for sponsors: the extension to 16 days from 12 added an extra weekend of coverage, while the additional programming time was filled by television friendly demonstration events popular in Canada. The exposure curling, freestyle skiing and short-track speed skating gained in Calgary influenced the growth in their popularity and led to all three becoming full medal sports by 1998.[85]
Impact on Calgary[]
Hosting the Games helped fuel a significant increase in Calgary's reputation on the world stage.[40] Crosbie Cotton, a reporter for the Calgary Herald who covered the city's Olympic odyssey from its bid to the closing ceremonies, noted a change in the attitude of the city's population over time. He believed that the populace began to outgrow its "giant inferiority complex" that is "typically Canadian", replacing it with a new level of confidence as the Games approached.[86] They helped the city grow from a regional oil and gas centre best known for the Calgary Stampede to a destination for international political, economic and sporting events.[40] A study prepared for the organizing committee of the 2010 Vancouver Olympics claimed that Calgary hosted over 200 national and international sporting competitions between 1987 and 2007 due to the facilities it had constructed for the Olympics.[87]
The Games' enduring popularity within Calgary has been attributed to efforts to make them "everybody's Games". Aside from the sense of community fostered by the level of volunteer support, organizers included the public in other ways. People were given opportunity to purchase a brick with their names engraved on it and used to build Olympic Plaza, where medal ceremonies were held in 1988. It remains a popular public park and event site in the city's downtown.[88] Members of the community have attempted to bring a second Winter Games to the city. Calgary offered to take over the 2002 Winter Olympics after a bribery scandal resulted in speculation that Salt Lake City would be unable to remain the host.[89] The city also made an effort to bid for the 2010 Games on Canada's behalf, losing to Vancouver.[90] A 2013 Calgary Sun online poll found that 81% of respondents would support the city hosting a second Olympics.[91]
Canada's development as a winter sport nation[]
Canada increased its medal totals in each successive Winter Games from Calgary until Vancouver in 2010.
Mindful of the financial disaster the Montreal Olympics became, OCO'88 parlayed its ability to generate television and sponsorship revenues and government support into what was ultimately a C$170 million surplus.[32] (The claim of a surplus has frequently been challenged as OCO'88 counted only its own revenues and expenses and did not include government funded facilities in its accounting.[92]) The surplus was turned into endowment funds split between Canada Olympic Park ($110 million) and CODA, which was reformed following the Games to manage the Olympic facilities with a trust fund that had subsequently grown to be worth over $200 million by 2013.[32] Consequently, all five of the primary facilities built for the 1988 Olympics remained operational in their original intended purpose 25 years after the Games concluded.[93]
Calgary and Canmore became the heart of winter sport in Canada as CODA (now known as Winsport Canada) established itself as the nation's leader in developing elite athletes; in 2006, one-quarter of Canada's Olympic athletes were from the Calgary region and three-quarters of its medalists were from or trained in Alberta.[87] Canada was not a winter sport power in 1988; the nation's five medals in Calgary was its second best total at a Winter Olympics behind the seven it won at the 1932 Lake Placid Games.[94] After 1988, Canada won an increasing number of medals at each successive Olympics,[95] culminating in a 26-medal performance in 2010 that included a Winter Olympic record of 14 gold medals, one more than the previous record holders Soviet Union (1976) and Norway (2002).[96]
See also[]
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Notes[]
- <templatestyles src="Citation/styles.css"/>a The figure in parentheses represents the number of athletes each nation brought to the Games, including both medal and demonstration sports and whether or not they competed, as recorded in the XV Olympic Winter Games Official Report.[97]
References[]
- ↑ Osterwalder, Markus, "Olympic Games – The Design (Calgary 1988 Emblem)", Niggli Verlag, retrieved March 28, 2021
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "Seoul chosen in easy vote for 1988 Summer Olympics", The Record-Journal (Meriden, CT), p. 17, October 1, 1981, retrieved February 14, 2013
- ↑ Cotton, Crosbie (September 30, 1981), "Canada missed six prior bids", Calgary Herald, p. A19
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 King 1991, p. 9
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 OCO'88 1988, p. 51
- ↑ King 1991, p. 6
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Cotton, Crosbie (September 30, 1981), "Around the world, CODA has given its best shot", Calgary Herald, p. A19
- ↑ "Frank King", Calgary Booster Club, retrieved July 20, 2021
- ↑ King 1991, p. 34
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Vancouver loses to 'big-ticket' Games", Vancouver Sun, p. F7, October 29, 1979, retrieved February 14, 2013
- ↑ King 1991, p. 26
- ↑ King 1991, p. 38
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 153
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Findling & Pelle 1996, p. 311
- ↑ Cotton, Crosbie (October 1, 1981), "Delighted delegates dance 'victory stomp'", Calgary Herald, p. A1, retrieved February 14, 2013
- ↑ Walmsley, Ann (February 2, 1988). "The Men Who Made it Work". Maclean's. 101 (4). pp. 20–22. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedGames - ↑ "Milano Cortina 2026", International Olympic Committee, March 10, 2021, retrieved July 21, 2021
- ↑ Podnieks 2009, p. 149
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 "Building on the Olympic Legacy", Calgary Herald, pp. A15–A16, February 9, 2013
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 Swift, E. M. (March 9, 1987), "Countdown to the Cowtown hoedown", Sports Illustrated, retrieved February 14, 2013
- ↑ Gerlach 2004, p. 120
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 101
- ↑ Ireland, Joanne (December 11, 1986), "Mt. Allan weathers criticism", Edmonton Journal, p. E7, retrieved February 14, 2013
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 137
- ↑ Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 9–13. SSRN 2804554.
- ↑ Gerlach 2004, p. 119
- ↑ "ABC gets 1988 Winter Games", Sarasota Herald-Tribune, p. 12B, January 25, 1984, retrieved February 15, 2013
- ↑ "'88 Winter Olympics debt free thanks to television contract", The Daily Times (Portsmouth, OH), p. 9, January 25, 1984, retrieved February 15, 2013
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Perricone, Mike (December 28, 1986), "Snags hit Winter Olympics", Chicago Sun-Times, retrieved February 15, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Powers, John (February 22, 1987), "No gold for ABC; Network to take Olympic-sized bath on rights fee", Boston Globe, retrieved February 15, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Kaufmann, Bill (February 10, 2013), "The legacy games", Calgary Sun: 88 ...when the world came to Calgary, pp. 3–6
- ↑ "CBS Wins Rights to '92 Games; $243 Million Paid For Winter Olympics", Washington Post, May 25, 1988, retrieved February 18, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ "Scandals plague Calgary Games", Spokane Spokesman-Review, p. 29, February 13, 1987, retrieved February 18, 2013
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Powers, John (March 18, 1987), "Olympic tickets, not weather, an issue in Calgary", Beaver County Times, p. 2, retrieved February 18, 2013
- ↑ "Olympics' ticket boss faces fraud, theft charges", Edmonton Journal, p. A1, October 31, 1986, retrieved February 18, 2013
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 Powers, John (February 12, 1988), "Calgary has a warm reception for Games", Boston Globe, retrieved February 23, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Janofsky, Michael (February 4, 1988), "Winter Olympics: boom or bust", The Age (Melbourne), Green Guide, p. 8, retrieved February 23, 2013
- ↑ Denton, Herbert H. (February 27, 1988), "In 'Olympic City', a passion to be the perfect host", Washington Post, retrieved February 20, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Ferguson, Eva (February 8, 2013), "A city transformed", Calgary Herald, p. A13
- ↑ "It's Hidy, Howdy", Calgary Herald, p. A1, January 30, 1984, retrieved February 20, 2013
- ↑ Clarke, Norm (November 5, 1987), "Hidy and Howdy from the Calgary Olympics", Spokane Spokesman-Review, p. C2, retrieved February 20, 2013
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 259
- ↑ "Hidy and Howdy still crowd favourite", Calgary Herald, January 7, 2008, retrieved February 20, 2013
- ↑ Anderson, Merv (January 26, 1984), "Winter Games to jump-start the economy", Calgary Herald, p. H5, retrieved February 23, 2013
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Burns, John F. (February 22, 1987), "A year to go; Enthusiasm prevails, but concerns remain", New York Times, retrieved March 3, 2013
- ↑ Maychak, Matt (April 13, 1985), "Deja vu for Calgary Olympics?", Windsor Star, p. E3, retrieved March 3, 2013
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 79
- ↑ "Olympic torch begins journey to 1988 Winter Games", The Item (Sumter, SC), p. 4B, November 16, 1987, retrieved March 10, 2013
- ↑ Dunn 1987, p. 125
- ↑ Factsheet: The Olympic torch relay (PDF), International Olympic Committee, 2012, pp. 4–7, retrieved March 10, 2013
- ↑ Ferguson, Derek (April 15, 1987), "6.6 million applications made to tote Calgary Olympic torch", Toronto Star, p. A1, retrieved March 10, 2013(subscription required)
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Gerlach 2004, p. 121
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 Busby, Ian (February 13, 2013), "Secret Service", Calgary Sun, p. S3
- ↑ http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/base-de-donnees/olympiens/001064-119.01-e.php?q1=%22Hanson%2C+Rick%22&c1=athlete_list&brws=1&brws_s=1&PHPSESSID=b1p8aroa7dr5dd1jc6ol2vo0u7
- ↑ They lit the flame: torch carriers of the last 20 years, Associated Press, August 12, 2004, retrieved October 13, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Bradley, Jeff (November 18, 1987), "Torch run starts Calgary Olympics", Spokane Spokesman-Review, p. D1, retrieved March 26, 2013
- ↑ Norris, Alexander (November 29, 1986), "Ottawa research team basks in glow of Olympic torch", Ottawa Citizen, p. A10, retrieved March 26, 2013
- ↑ Joynt, Jerry (February 9, 2013), "Tower flame kept secret until end", Calgary Herald, p. A17
- ↑ 60.0 60.1 Janofsky, Michael (February 13, 1988), "Spruced-Up Calgary Is Ready to Light the Torch", New York Times, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ Dempsey 2002, p. 597
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, p. 297
- ↑ Olympic Ceremonies: Calgary 1988, Government of Canada, retrieved March 18, 2013
- ↑ "16 days in February... Day 1", Calgary Sun: 88 ...when the world came to Calgary, p. 8, February 10, 2013
- ↑ PM: Governor General will open Vancouver Olympics, Associated Press, June 28, 2009, retrieved March 18, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Gaul, John (February 25, 1988), "Chinook allows events to breeze along", Sydney Morning Herald, p. 44, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Wallechinsky & Loucky 2009, p. 7
- ↑ "Austrian ski team's doctor killed in accident", Lakeland Ledger, p. 4D, February 27, 1988, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 69.5 "Where are they now?", Calgary Herald, p. A14, February 8, 2013
- ↑ Wallechinsky & Loucky 2009, p. 32
- ↑ Canada at the Winter Olympics, Historica-Dominion Institute of Canada, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ Celebrating women's achievements – Sylvie Daigle, Library and Archives Canada, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ Busby, Ian (February 19, 2013), "Calgary '88 Day 8 -- The Battle of the Brians", Calgary Sun, retrieved March 11, 2013
- ↑ Weinberg, Rick, 87: Jansen falls after learning of sister's death, ESPN, retrieved March 13, 2013
- ↑ Montville, Leigh (February 15, 1988), "Jansen's day of tragedy", Boston Globe, retrieved March 13, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Odland, Kristen (February 10, 2008), "Jansen's journey to new life", Calgary Herald, retrieved March 13, 2013
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, pp. 600–603
- ↑ McGrath, Nick (February 19, 2012), "Eddie the Eagle: 'I went from £6,000 a year to £10,000 an hour'", The Telegraph (London), retrieved March 13, 2013
- ↑ Fryer, Jane (September 14, 2007), "Taking flight: Eddie The Eagle in action in the run-up to the 1988 Calgary Olympics", Daily Mail (London), retrieved March 13, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 Busby, Ian (February 21, 2013), "Jamaican bobsleigh team won over Calgary crowds", Calgary Sun, retrieved March 13, 2013
- ↑ Harrington, Richard (October 1, 1993), "'Cool Runnings': Miracle on Sand", Washington Post, retrieved March 13, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Phillips, Angus (February 7, 1988), "Calgary Stands Proud, Ready as Olympics Host; Smiles Prevail in Sub-Zero Conditions", Washington Post, retrieved March 26, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Calgary 1988, International Olympic Committee, retrieved March 26, 2013
- ↑ Dunn 1987, pp. 100–105
- ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 Nilson, Chris (February 9, 2013), "A lasting impact on the Games", Calgary Herald, p. A13
- ↑ Cotton, Crosbie (February 29, 1988), "The party's almost over", Sports Illustrated, retrieved March 16, 2013
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 Legacies of North American Olympic Winter Games, May 7, 2007, archived from the original on October 4, 2009, retrieved 2013-03-16 Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ↑ Gorrell, Mike (February 4, 1996), "After Falling in Love With the '88 Games, Calgary Still Carries a Torch for the Olympics", Salt Lake Tribune, p. A1
- ↑ "City of latter-day scandal", The Economist, January 30, 1999, retrieved March 18, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Vancouver-Whistler to bid for 2010 Winter Games, Associated Press, December 1, 1998, retrieved March 18, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Moharib, Nadia (February 9, 2013), "Olympic dreams still burning for Calgary fans of the Games", Calgary Sun, retrieved March 18, 2013
- ↑ Walkom, Thomas (February 8, 1999), "The Olympic myth of Calgary: Making money; Be prepared to spend, spend, spend is lesson for any host city", Toronto Star, retrieved March 14, 2013(subscription required)
- ↑ Calgary's 1988 Winter Games legacy thriving, Associated Press, February 12, 2013, retrieved March 16, 2013 – via Highbeam (subscription required)
- ↑ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedCanadaNOC - ↑ Marsh, James, Winter Olympic Games, Historica-Dominion Institute of Canada, retrieved March 16, 2013
- ↑ Walde, Paul (February 28, 2010), "A record haul, a nation's triumph", Globe and Mail, retrieved March 16, 2013
- ↑ OCO'88 1988, pp. 622–645
External links[]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1988 Winter Olympics. |
- "Calgary 1988". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee.
- Template:IOC medals
- Olympic Review, March 1988 – Official results
- CBC Digital Archives – The Winter of '88: Calgary's Olympic Games
Further reading[]
- Dempsey, Daniel V. (2002), A Tradition of Excellence: Canada's Airshow Team Heritage, High Flight Enterprises, ISBN 0-9687817-0-5
- Dunn, Bob, ed. (1987), Official Souvenir Program – XV Olympic Winter Games, XV Olympic Winter Games Organizing Committee
- Gerlach, Larry (2004), The Winter Olympics – From Chamonix to Salt Lake City, The University of Utah Press, ISBN 0-87480-778-6
- OCO'88 (1988), XV Olympic Winter Games: Official Report, XV Olympic Winter Games Organizing Committee
- Podnieks, Andrew (2009), Canada's Olympic Hockey History 1920–2010, Fenn Publishing, ISBN 1-55168-323-7
- Wallechinsky, David; Loucky, Jaime (2009), The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics (Vancouver Edition – Winter 2010), Greystone Books, ISBN 978-1-55365-502-2
| Preceded by Sarajevo |
Winter Olympics Calgary XV Olympic Winter Games (1988) |
Succeeded by Albertville |
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Template:Calgary Template:EventsAt1988WinterOlympics Template:1988 Winter Olympic venues Template:Sport in Canada Template:TCA Award for Outstanding Achievement in Sports
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